MODERN MACHINE SHOP 



CONSTRUCTION, 
EQUIPMENT and 



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Class 

Book 



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COPXRIGHT DEPOSm 



MODERN MACHINE SHOP 



CONSTRUCTION 
EQUIPMENT AND 
MANAGEMENT 



A COMPREHENSIVE AND PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE ECONOMICAL 
BUILDING, THE EFFICIENT EQUIPMENT AND SUCCESSFUL MANAGE- 
MENT OF THE MODERN MACHINE SHOP AND MANUFACTURING 

ESTABLISHMENT. 

A WORK FOR THE ARCHITECT, ENGINEER, MANUFACTURER, 
DIRECTOR, OFFICER, ACCOUNTANT, SUPERINTENDENT 

AND FOREMAN. 



BY 

OSCAR E. PERRIGO 

Member American Society of Mechanical Engineers 

Expert in Machine Shop and Factory Organization, Modern Shop Methods 

Time and Cost Systems, etc. 




SECOND EDITION — REVISED AND ENLARGED 

ILLUSTRATED BY TWO HUNDRED AND NINETEEN 
SPECIALLY MADE ENGRAVINGS BY THE AUTHOR 



NEW YORK 
THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY 

2 WEST 45TH STREET 
1917 






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Copyrighted 191 7 arid 1905 

by 
Oscar E. Perrigo, M.E. 

All rights reserved 



Composition, Presswork, and Binding 

by 

The Plimpton Press 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 




SEP -81917 



.A470972 



(Ed 

MY BELOVED BROTHER ALBERT 

AN EXCELLENT MECHANIC 

THIS BOOK IS 

AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED 

BY 

THE AUTHOR 



PREFACE TO SECOND REVISED AND ENLARGED 

EDITION 

The remarkable success of the First Edition of this work and its flatter- 
ing reception by practical designing Architects, Managers, Superintendents, 
and Shop Men has been very gratifying ; and the fact that in no instance had 
the author received complaints of errors, or serious criticism, has induced the 
publication of this Second Edition. 

New developments in Shop Management have suggested the addition of 
four entirely new chapters devoted to these subjects, which have been fully 
illustrated for the especial benefit and use of Managers, Accountants, and 
Shop Men. 

In the preface to the First Edition it was said that " the aim and object 
of the author in publishing this book is to produce a work suitable for the 
practical and everyday use of the Architects who design, the Manufacturers 
who build, the Engineers who plan and equip, the Superintendents who or- 
ganize and direct ; and for the information of every Stockholder, Officer, Ac- 
countant, Clerk, Superintendent, Foreman and Workman of the Modern 
Machine Shop and Manufacturing Plant of industrial America." These 
conditions have proved so satisfactory that the same objects have been 
sought in the new matter added in this Second Edition. 

The Systems herein given are those which the author has successfully 
used himself or seen used in actual shop practice and under everyday con- 
ditions, consequently they are eminently practical. They are confidently 
recommended to those having charge of work, as simple, practical, and readily 
workable. 

The author has enjoyed over twenty years of successful management of 
shops and factories without having in a single instance encountered "labor 
troubles"; and believes that much of this smooth-running efficiency has been 
due to his thorough belief in the intelligent initiative and honest pride of 
the American mechanic in his work. Therefore he deprecates all attempts 
to formulate systems of management which tend to make "machine-made 

5 



6 PREFACE 

mechanics," who do their work in blind obedience to overseeing authority 
and the tick of the watch of the "speed boss." He believes that whatso- 
ever tends to lower the initiative of the workman and retards his independence 
of thought along the lines of his work tends to lower his efficiency and con- 
sequently his value as a factor in the manufacturing problem. 

With this view of the subject this Second Edition is confidently sub- 
mitted to the manufacturer and his co-workers. 

Oscar E. Perrigo, M. E. 
July, 1 91 7. 



CONTENTS 



Chapter I. 

Chapter II. 

Chapter III. 

Chapter IV. 

Chapter V. 

Chapter VI. 

Chapter VII. 

Chapter VIII. 

Chapter IX. 

Chapter X. 

Chapter XI. 

Chapter XII. 

Chapter XIII. 

Chapter XIV. 

Chapter XV. 



PART FIRST 

MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 

PAGE 

Introduction 17 

General Plans . 20 

General Construction of the Buildings 27 

Slow-burning Construction 38 

Slow-burning Construction of Brick and Wood .... 42 

Slow-burning Construction of Wood only 46 

One-story Machine Shop of Brick and Wood 50 

Saw-tooth Construction of Roofs 54 

Design and Construction of Chimney 61 

The construction of Foundations 68 

The Construction of Floors 77 

The System of Heating and Ventilation 88 

The System of Lighting 99 

Power and Transmission 109 

Some Concluding Remarks 119 



Chapter XVI. 

Chapter XVII. 

Chapter XVIII. 

Chapter XIX. 

Chapter XX. 

Chapter XXI. 

Chapter XXII. 

Chapter XXIII. 

Chapter XXIV. 



PART SECOND 

MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 

PAGE 

Machine Shop Equipment 125 

Planning the Different Departments 129 

Equipment of the Tool Room and Tool Store Room . . . 136 

The Drawing Room 150 

The Pattern Shop and Pattern Storage Room 165 

The Iron Foundry . 178 

The Forge Shop 191 

Shop Transportation Equipment 204 

Miscellaneous Equipment of the Manufacturing Plant . . 217 

7 



s 



CONTEXTS 



Chapter XXV. 

Chapter XXVI. 

Chapter XXYIL 

Chapter XXYIIL 

Chapter XXIX. 

Chapter XXX. 

Chapter XXXI. 

Chapter XXXII. 



PART THIRD 

MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

PAGE 

Machine Shop Management 235 

The Superintendent's Office 245 

The Problem of Apportioning the Fixed Charges .... 258 

The Drafting Room 270 

The Tool and Stock Room 282 

Pattern Shop System ....„„ 298 

General Efficiency in Manufacturing Operations . . . . .311 
Machine Shop Mutual Aid Association r . .... 318 

First Aid to Injured Employees . . . , . . . . .321 

Shop Reading Room 323 

Shop Dining Room ...... c ...... 326 



ADDITIONAL CHAPTERS TO THE SECOND REVISED AND ENLARGED 

EDITION 

Chapter XXXJLLL Increasing the Efficiency of Machines 329 

Chapter XXXIV. Increasing the Efficiency of Men 339 

Chapter XXXV. The Relation of the Overhead Burden to the Flat Cost . . . 348 

Chapter XXXVL Manufacturing Cost Systems 358 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



PART FIRST 

FIG. PAGE 

1. Front Elevation of Shops for a Model Plant 21 

2. General Plan of the Works 22 

3. Plan of the Second Floor of Front Building 23 

4. Cross Section through Machine Shop 30 

5. Cross Section through Foundry, Cupola Platform, etc 31 

6. Section through Cupola Platform at Right Angles to Fig. 5 32 

7. Cross Section through Forge Shop ^t, 

8. Cross Section through Power House 34 

9. Cross Section through 'Store House, Carpenter Shop, Tracks, etc 35 

10. Cross Section through Carpenter Shop 36 

n. Slow-burning Construction, of Brick and Wood . 43 

12. Cast Iron Wall Plates 43 

13. Cast Iron Pintles for Supporting Posts 43 

14. Slow-burning Construction, of Wood only 47 

15. One-story Machine Shop, of Brick and Wood 51 

16. Longitudinal Section of Saw-tooth Roof Girders, of Steel Construction 55 

17. Transverse Section of Saw-tooth Roof Girders, of Steel Construction 55 

18. Longitudinal Section of Saw-tooth Roof Girders, of Wood Construction . . 58 

19. Transverse Section of Saw-tooth Roof Girders, of Wood Construction ... 58 

20. Perspective View of Machine Shop with Saw-tooth Roof 59 

21. Vertical Section of Chimney and Foundation 64 

22. Elevation of the Completed Chimney 64 

23. Horizontal Section of Chimney, Octagonal Form 64 

24. Horizontal Section of Chimney, Square Form 64 

25. Horizontal Section showing Number of Bricks in the Square Form .... 65 

26. Hoiizontal Section showing Number of Bricks in the Octagonal Form ... 65 

27. Timber Support for Foundation Wall 69 

28. Piling and Timber Support for Foundation Wall 69 

29. Piling and Stone Support for Foundation Wall 70 

30. Timber and Concrete Support for Foundation Wall 70 

31. Benching out Ground for Foundations 71 

32. Battered Foundation Wall 71 

t,^. Straight Foundation Wall 71 

34. End Elevation of Engine Foundation 73 

35. Partial Side Elevation of Engine Foundation 73 

36. Special Pier for Machine Testing Foundation 73 

37. Drop Hammer Foundation 75 

38. Cross Section of Steam Hammer Foundation 75 

9 



io LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



FIG. 



PAGE 



39. Longitudinal Section of Steam Hammer Foundation 76 

40. Vertical Section Earth and Concrete Floor 77 

41. Vertical Section Stone and Concrete Floor 78 

42. Flagstone Floor 78 

43. Brick Paving 78 

44. Simple Steel I-beam Support 78 

45. Floor Supported by Built-up Steel Beam 78 

46. Floor with Wooden Beams 79 

47. A Plank properly cut from the Log 79 

48. A Plank improperly cut from the Log 79 

49. The Wrong Way to cut up a Log 80 

50. The Right Way to cut up a Log 80 

51. Quartering the Log 80 

52. Floor Supported Entirely by Steel Beams 82 

53. A Floor as Originally Laid 83 

54. The Floor as Warped out of Shape 84 

55. Heating Pipe Elbows 90 

56. Heating Pipe Y 90 

57. Heating Pipe Reducer 90 

58. Branch from Main Heating Pipe 91 

59. Plan of Heating System for Machine Shop 92 

60. Cross Section through Machine Shop 93 

61. Cross Section through Foundry, Cupola Platform, etc 95 

62. Plan of Heating System for Foundry 96 

63. Plan of Heating System for Office Building, First Floor 96 

64. Plan of Heating System for Office Building, Second Floor 96 

65. Longitudinal Section through Office Building . 97 

66. Lighting Diagram, Low Windows 100 

67. Lighting Diagram, High Windows 100 

68. Lighting Diagram, Section through Machine Shop 101 

69. Lighting Diagram, Cross Section through Saw-tooth Construction of Roof . . 101 

70. Outside Elevation of Benedict's Shop Windows 102 

71. Outside Elevation, of upper portion 102 

72. Horizontal Section of Window Jamb, Sash, Glass, etc 103 

73. Inside Elevation showing inside Finish 103 

74. Vertical Cross Section 104 

75. Longitudinal Section of Boiler Setting 112 

76. Vertical Half Cross Section and Elevation of Boiler Setting 112 

77. Horizontal Section of Boiler Setting 113 

78. General Plan of Power Plant 115 

PART SECOND 

79. Arrangement of Tools and Departments in Model Machine Shop . . . 130 

80. Machine Shop Second Floor or Galleries 130 

81. Plan of Shop Offices, Tool Room, Tool Storeroom, Rough Stock Storeroom 

and Purchased Parts Storeroom 137 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS n 

FIG. PAGE 

Bench, with Rack for Long Arbors, Boring Bars, etc 139 

Cases with Inclined Shelves, each side of Alcove 140 

Case with Inclined Shelves suitable for Long Tools 141 

Front and End Elevation of File Case 142 

Fixed Terminal Hanger of Horizontal Tool Carrying System 143 

Intermediate Support, Horizontal System 143 

Adjustable Terminal Hanger, Horizontal System 143 

End View of Intermediate Support, Vertical System 144 

Perspective View of Vertical System 144 

Modified Form of Stock Cases with Lower Bins Enlarged 146 

Modified Form of Stock Cases with Pigeon Holes for Rods, Tubing, etc. . . 146 

Combination Stock Case with Compartments for Sheet Metal, etc 147 

Plan of Drawing Room and its Arrangement 153 

Drawing Table for one Draftsman 154 

Double Drawing Table for Detail Draftsmen 154 

Chief Draftsman's Desk 155 

Case for Filing Drawings and Tracings 155 

Case for Filing Blueprints 156 

Drawing Room Arranged for Storage Vault in one Corner 158 

Arrangement of Offices under Drawing Room when there is a Vault . . . . 159 

Plan of the Blueprint Room 160 

Side Elevation of Stand for Supporting Blueprint Frames 160 

Perspective View of Stand for Supporting Blueprint Frames 160 

Large Blueprint Frame 161 

Automatic Washer for Blueprints 162 

Longitudinal Section of Automatic Washer 162 

Blueprint Drying Rack and Cabinet 163 

Plan of Pattern Shop and Pattern Storage Room 166 

Patternmaker's Bench 170 

Plan of Loft over Pattern Shop 172 

Dry Room for Pattern Lumber 173 

Pattern Storage Rack with Metal Frame and Wood Shelves 175 

Pattern Storage Rack, all Wood Construction 176 

Plan of Foundry, showing General Arrangement and Equipment .... 180 

Branch Tracks for Cars to run from Elevator to Cupola 181 

Rear Elevation of Charging Car 181 

Side Elevation of Charging Car 182 

Plan of Pickling Beds 186 

Vertical Section through Pickling Beds 186 

Cast Iron Washing Sinks, with Individual supply of Water 189 

Plan showing Arrangement of Wash Room 190 

General Plan of Forge Shop, showing Proper Arrangement of the Machine 

Tools, etc 193 

Front Elevation of Annealing and Case-hardening Furnace 197 

Side Elevation of Annealing and Case-hardening Furnace . 197 

Rear Elevation of Annealing and Case-hardening Furnace 198 

Section through Fire Box, etc., of Annealing and Case-hardening Furnace . . 198 



12 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG. PAGE 

Longitudinal Section of Annealing and Case-hardening Furnace . . . . 199 

Section through Heating Chamber of Annealing and Case-hardening Furnace 200 

Rack for Bar Stock, for Storing Long Bars of Iron and Steel .... 202 

Small Rack for Ordinary Cast Steel and Tool Steel Bars 203 

Plan of Curve and Straight Track, showing Method of Joining .... 208 

Plan of Switch, showing Method of securing Supporting Timbers . . . 208 

Cross Section of Straight Track when Laid 209 

Cross Section of Curved Track when Laid 209 

Cross Section of Straight Track 210 

Cross Section of Track on Curves 210 

Cross Section of Straight Yard Track 210 

Cross Section of Straight Shop Track 210 

Plan and Cross Section of Turntable . 211 

Side Elevation of Tram Car 212 

End Elevation of Tram Car 212 

Plan of Under Side of Tram Car . . ., . . . 213 

Section of Car Wheel 213 

Car and Removable Stakes 214 

Car with Removable Box . 214 

Car Arranged for Special Work 214 

Car Arranged for Trays 214 

Side Elevation of Dump Car 215 

End Elevation of Dump Car 215 

Double Car. Two Cars and a Special Platform 215 

Plan of Carpenter Shop , 218 

Fixed Desk, Pigeon Holes, etc 220 

Case for Lag Screws, Nails, Spikes, etc 221 

Case for Machine Bolts, Nuts, Washers, etc. ......... 221 

Plan of Store House 223 

Plan of Paint Room 224 

Plan of Wash Room 226 

Plan of Water Closets 226 

Vertical, Longitudinal Section of Planer Foundation 229 

Plan of Planer Foundation 230 

PART THIRD 

162. A Graphic Chart showing the System of Organization and Management . 237 

163. The Progress of Orders Board 247 

164. List of Parts 250 

165. List of Gray Iron Castings 250 

166. List of Forgings 250 

167. List of Purchased Parts and Stock 250 

168. Requisition for Gray Iron Castings 251 

169. Requisition for Forgings 251 

170. Requisition for Materials 252 

171. Requisition for Purchased Parts 252 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 13 

FIG. PAGE 

172. Material and Cost Card 253 

173. The Time Account . 253 

174. The Time Card 254 

175. The Job Time Book . 255 

176. Special Material Requisition 256 

177. The Fuel Account 256 

178. Requisition for Consumable Supplies 257 

179. The Conventional Indication of Materials on Drawings 274 

180. Title on Drawings 275 

181. Drawer for Drawings, Tracings, or Blueprints 278 

182. Index Cards for Drawer 278 

183. Case for Storing Mounted Blueprints 279 

184. Group Index Card 279 

185. Machine Index Card 280 

186. Locating Index Cards in the Drawer 280 

187. Order for Prints 280 

188. Blueprint Record Card . 281 

189. Blueprint Index Card 281 

190. Plan of a Tool Department 284 

191. Material and Cost Card 286 

192. The Time Account 286 

193. 1 The Time Card 287 

194. Foreman's Order 288 

195. Requisition for Stock and Material 288 

196. Tool Check Board 290 

197. Permanent Issue Tool Card 292 

198. Stock and Supply Requisition , 295 

199. Stock Ledger Card 295 

200. Requisition for Consumable Supplies 296 

201. The Right Way to cut a Board 302 

202. The Wrong Way to cut a Board 302 

203. The Usual Way of cutting up a Log 302 

204. The Proper Way of cutting up a Log 302 

205. Quartering the Log 302 

206. Case or Drawer for Pattern Letters and Figures 306 

207. Front Elevation of Cabinet for Pattern Letters, Wood and Leather Fillets, 

Dowels, Rapping Plates, etc 306 

208. Side Elevation of Cabinet 306 

ADDITIONAL ILLUSTRATIONS TO THE SECOND REVISED AND 

ENLARGED EDITION 

209. Increasing the Efficiency of a Vertical Boring Mill 333 

210 The Original Plan of a Shop Department 335 

211. Plan of Department as Re-arranged for Greater Efficiency 337 

212. Consecutive Operations in Machining a Chuck Plate 343 

213. The Time Study Card 344 



i 4 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

214. The Piece Work Card 345 

215. The Shop Operation Sheet 346 

216. General Production Order Card 364 

217. Sub Production Card 365 

218. Special Production Order Card 365 

219. Requisition for Supplies Card 366 



PART FIRST 



MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 



CHAPTER I 

INTRODUCTION 

The fitness of things. Growth and progress of manufacturing interests. The usual results 
to the manufacturing plant. The unnecessary expense. Value of a comprehensive 
plan. Progress in construction. The striving of the best. The aim of the Author. 
Different forms of construction. " Slow burning construction." Special requirements 
of manufacturing buildings. Wooden beams. Special features. Construction of 
floors. General rules. Compound beams. Care for the strength of timbers. 

The "eternal fitness of things," as well as the spirit of this progressive 
age, requires that in whatever we design, build, equip, and arrange for the 
production of our portion of the vast output of the manufactures of the present 
day, we shall strive to make it the best of its class, and the best adapted for 
the special uses to which it will be put, the kind of goods or machinery to be 
manufactured, and the circumstances, conditions, and surroundings under 
which we are to work. 

In a great majority of cases the manufacturing plants of this country 
have been the result of growth and progress, more or less rapid, of the business 
which they were designed to accommodate. Often they began with very 
meager facilities for the work in hand, with poorly designed and cheaply 
constructed buildings, and all the conveniences and accessories of the plainest 
kind. As the business enlarged, greater means were available, and necessity 
demanded, the buildings were gradually added to and their other facilities 
increased. Buildings were enlarged by increasing their height, by the addi- 
tion of wings or the erection of separate buildings, often disconnected and 
scattered, without any apparent plan or consideration of their accessibility or 
usefulness. 

Thus the establishment became an aggregation of buildings of various 
sizes and forms, requiring much greater expense for handling stock, material, 
and product, and an unnecessarily large expense for power by which to operate 
it, and the entire plant often representing in a general way the worst pos- 
sible arrangement for economically producing work, or for producing really 
first-class work at all. 

At the same time it represented the total expenditure of a much greater 
amount of capital than would have been necessary to erect and equip good 

*7 



18 MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 

buildings, designed and built in accordance with the best practice, and well 
suited to the necessities of the business. 

It may be said that the necessity for comprehensive plans could not have 
been foreseen at the early time at which the business was inaugurated ; which 
may be true enough, but if the founders had even moderate faith in their 
enterprise they must have at least expected that it would, in time, consid- 
erably enlarge. Therefore, a general plan might have been made and such 
part of it erected as would make it easy to enlarge by adding from time to 
time to what was originally built, but always in conformity with the original 
plan and in development of it. 

It may be said that the modern development of the construction of man- 
ufacturing buildings has so changed their character that it would have been 
impossible for the early builders to have profited by the formulating of one 
general plan for a plant equal to the growth of the business, and the modern 
conception of what such buildings should be. This is in some measure true, 
but it does not excuse the seemingly total lack of foresight exhibited in the 
construction and arrangement of many of the older buildings for manufacturing 
purposes. 

Consequently there are numerous establishments in this progressive 
country to-day occupying antiquated and rambling structures that have cost 
money enough for the building of modern works, properly designed for the 
economical production of a much higher grade of goods or machinery than 
could be possible to produce in the old plants. 

"The world moves," and nowhere is this more apparent than in manu- 
facturing and the building of machinery. That which would satisfy the 
manufacturer for the purposes of his business even five or ten years ago is 
among the "back numbers" of to-day. The constant striving for the best 
was never more in evidence than at the present time, among our up-to-date 
manufacturers who are able to look beyond the first cost to the greater 
advantages to be gained later on. 

In view of these conditions and the necessities of these progressive times, 
it is the aim of the following pages to discuss, from a practical standpoint, 
what is the best design, arrangement, and construction of manufacturing 
plants erected for the production of a medium-sized class of machinery, con- 
sidering the matter from the reception of the raw material to the shipping of 
the finished product. 

With this object in view, engravings showing the general plans for suitable 
buildings, of a size, form, and capacity for the usual work, arranged in com- 
pact form, of modern construction, and supplied with all necessary conven- 
iences and facilities for readily and economically handling the material and 
product, have been specially designed and drawn to illustrate these chapters. 



INTRODUCTION 19 

In addition to the original complete plan, various forms of construction 
of these and similar buildings are illustrated and described. As, for instance, 
the so-called "saw-tooth" construction of roofs, which has of late become so 
popular when one-story shops are to be constructed, and the product is such 
that large areas of floor surface are desirable, and which this method of con- 
struction so admirably lights up. 

There is also illustrated and described the so-called "slow-burning 
construction" of buildings for machine shops and other manufacturing pur- 
poses, which are favorites with the insurance companies on account of their 
well-proven capability of resisting the ravages of fire. They are shown of 
brick and wood construction, and also those built entirely of wood. 

The intention of the author is not to follow the design and construction 
into the special field of the architect by giving all of the details of construction, 
minute directions for the various parts of the work, or the mathematical 
calculations that may be necessary in preparing the detail plans for the actual 
construction. These things must necessarily be done by the architect in each 
individual case. Yet where figures are given they will be found practical and 
sufficient for the purposes intended. 

The intention is to give such illustrations and information in reference to 
the special requirements of machine shops and manufacturing buildings as 
the architect or structural engineer who has had little or no shop experience 
may not be familiar with; and also to point out to the manufacturer about 
to construct new buildings, or to change or to reconstruct old ones, many 
of the necessary conditions and requirements, and to suggest the proper solu- 
tion of many of the problems that will naturally arise under such circumstances. 



CHAPTER II 

GENERAL PLANS 

The plant confined to a limited space. Compact form, capable of easy expansion. The 
main building or machine shop. Its general arrangement. The offices. Second- 
floor plans. The drawing room. The pattern shop. The foundry. Foundry 
departments. The forge shop. Yard tracks. The power house. The storehouse. 
The carpenter shop. Stock sheds. Railway facilities. Increasing the capacity of 
the buildings. Enlarging the machine shop. Two plans. Enlargement of the 
foundry. Additional power facilities. A larger site desirable. * 

In the arrangement of the general plans for the buildings composing the 
plant it is supposed that the amount of land is limited and therefore a compact 
form is necessary. Of course a much larger area would be advisable, but it 
is much easier to design the buildings and to arrange them in their relation 
to each other if we have ample area in which to do so. Therefore, the com- 
pact form, capable of easy expansion in any direction, is chosen as likely to 
be the most useful one to those desiring information on the subjects herein 
treated. 

With this in view cuts showing the general plans for suitable buildings 
of a size and capacity for the usual work, arranged in compact form, of modern 
construction and supplied with proper conveniences for handling the material 
and product, accompany this article. The entire plan requires a site of 
somewhat less than 300 x 450 feet. 

Fig. 1 is a front elevation of the buildings composing the plant. 

Fig. 2 shows a compact design to meet cases where the amount of land 
is limited, and illustrates how all the buildings may be so grouped as to render 
the handling of materials and transportation of them as simple, direct, and 
economical as possible. 

A railroad track should pass near the works, and from it a branch should 
be brought closely past the rear and to one side of the collection of buildings. 
Such an arrangement results in a great saving in the expense of hauling both 
material and product, and permitting the general arrangement and develop- 
ment of the plan herein proposed. 

The main building, or machine shop, is 100 x 375 feet, divided lengthwise 
into a central portion 40 feet wide and 52 feet high, with side wings or bays 

20 



GENERAL PLANS 



21 



each 30 feet wide. The central portion is open clear to the roof and has a 
traveling crane of ample capacity moving over its entire length. The side 
wings are divided into a main floor, on a level with the central portion, and 

a gallery or second floor; the first 
being 16 feet and the latter 14 feet 
high in the clear. This gallery is 
also built across 18 feet of the front 
end, thus connecting the two galleries 
and furnishing a platform by way of 
which the traveling crane may trans- 
fer material and product to and from 
the main floor. Along the center of 
these galleries and across the front 
end runs a tram track, provided with 
light push cars for facilitating the 
transfers. Stairways are provided at 
each end and in the center for con- 
veniently and speedily reaching any 
part of the shop from floor to galleries 
and vice versa. 

At the front end of the machine 
shop proper are the offices connected 
with and forming a part of it, con- 
sisting of two structures 50 feet 
square, with a driveway space of 
20 feet between them. On the first 
floor of one of these are the offices, 
storeroom, etc., and in the other the 
tool-making room, a room for storage 
tools and fixtures, and a stock room, 
for small finished parts. On the 
second floor is located the drawing 
room, while over the driveway is the 
pattern shop. 

The offices are only those par- 
ticularly connected with the manu- 
facturing and shipping, and not the 
general offices of the company. A 
wing connects the front buildings 
with the foundry. The ground floor 
of this wing is used as a storage 





GENERAL PLANS 



23 



room for pig and scrap iron, and a flask room, while the second lloor is a 
pattern storage loft, connected at one end with the pattern shop and at the 
opposite end with the foundry by a trap door 8 x 18 feet, directly over the 
train track leading through the flask room. 

The foundry is 85 x 150 feet, arranged with a central part 35 feet wide 
and two side wings or bays, each 25 feet wide. The central part is covered 
by a traveling crane running the entire length. There are two cupolas, a 
large and a small one, served by two cranes of sufficient reach to swing into 
the central space covered by the traveling crane. 

Large work is cast in the central space or within reach of the cranes, 
while small work and bench molding occupy parts of the floor not covered by 
the cranes. On each side of the central part are tram tracks, which are crossed 
by one running to the flask room and one that goes through the chipping 
room and on across the yard to the machine shop. 




SCALE 1 IN. = 48 FT. 



Fig. 3. — Plan of Second Floor of Front Building. Scale, one inch equals forty-four feet. 



A wing built on the side of the foundry toward the machine shop contains 
a platform upon which coal and iron for charging the cupolas are delivered 
by a tram car raised to that level by an elevator arranged for the purpose. 
This stock is weighed on track scales in front of the elevator. Beneath the 
cupola platform are the tumbling barrels, convenient to the cupolas for working 
over the slag, and to the chipping room for cleaning small castings. 

The flask room is located at the front, while between it and the tumbling 
barrel space is the core room, containing a suitable core oven. At the opposite 
end, facing the yard, is the chipping and pickling room, where the castings 
brought in from the foundry are pickled, chipped and weighed, before being 
sent to the machine shop. If the castings are too heavy for convenient hand- 
ling in the chipping room they may be run through to the yard and there 
handled by a boom crane covering the tram track upon which they are run 
into the machine shop. Castings of moderate size, yet too heavy to move by 
hand, are expeditiously handled by a light overhead trolley hoist in the chipping 
room. 

At one end of the outer wings are the wash room and toilet. If more 



24 MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 

floor space is needed these may be located in a gallery placed 8 or 10 feet 
above the foundry floor. 

In the further corner of the yard, as far as possible from the foundry 
and engine room, is the forge shop, 50 x 80 feet, which is reached by tram 
cars, the track running through its length near the center. On the outer 
walls are the chimneys for the forges and heaters, and in the rear are the storage 
shed for bar iron and steel, the wash room, toilet, and space for coal. These 
adjuncts are in a shed built with brick walls and of such outline as to conform 
somewhat to the curve of the railway track, the forge shop having been so 
located as to admit of this arrangement. 

When down-draft forges, served by exhaust fans, are used, it will not be 
necessary to build more than one chimney, the flue of which should be large 
enough to can*}' off the smoke and gases from all the forges. 

The power house is located midway in the length of the machine shop, 
so that power may be applied to the line shafting at a point that prevents 
much of the torsion incident to long lines of shafting driven from one end. 
This building is 65 x 100 feet and contains the engine room, 40 x 48 feet, 
the boiler room, 48 x 52 feet, and also the wash room, and water-closets used 
by workmen in the machine shop. 

Near the boiler room is the chimney stack, with which the smoke flues 
of all the boilers are connected. Coal is brought in on push cars along the 
tram track, to the front of the boilers, where a track scale is placed for weighing 
it. Ashes are removed by the same tram track to whatever point is most 
desirable to deliver them. 

Across the rear end of the yard is the storehouse, 50 x 100 feet, for finished 
machines, or product. This connects with the rear end of the machine shop 
by a tram track running from the scales beneath the traveling crane through 
a wide doorway and the entire length of the storehouse. The rear side of 
the storehouse (next to the railway track) has wide, sliding doors, through 
which the finished product is readily moved into the railway cars for shipment. 
Here, as in the chipping room of the foundry, it may be desirable to make 
use of overhead trolley hoists to facilitate rapid and economical handling of 
machinery to be shipped. 

A 12-foot space is left between storehouse and forge shop for a branch of 
the tram tracks, as a convenient means of receiving material from the railway 
at this point. 

Adjoining the storehouse is the carpenter shop, 40 x 60 feet. Thus the 
men who prepare the finished machinery for shipping are near their work, 
and the lumber used for this purpose, and the necessary machinery for cutting 
it up, are close at hand and require no unnecessary handling. 

In the angle formed by the storehouse and carpenter shop are the storage 



GENERAL PLANS 25 

sheds for cast iron and steel chips from the machine shop, or for similar 
materials. 

Along the side of the yard, and extending from the forge shop to within 
20 feet of the foundry, are arranged the stock sheds. These hold foundry 
sand and coal, engine coal, coke, etc., which is delivered into them directly 
from the railway cars, the track being raised to the proper grade after it has 
passed the storehouse. It is continued the whole length of the foundry so as 
to deliver foundry sand directly into the windows of the foundry if desirable, 
keeping that in the storage shed as a reserve supply. 

Between the storage sheds and foundry is a gate, through which may 
pass a branch of the tram car track for receiving stock and material from the 
railway cars at this point. 

Details of the plans herein outlined and the progress of the work from 
the raw materials to the finished product will be given in future chapters. 
The second chapter will deal especially with the construction of the buildings. 

Whatever may be the dimensions of the building of a manufacturing 
plant, or however carefully provision be made for all necessities for handling 
materials, etc., there is always the possibility, and frequently the probability, 
that some day the works will have to be increased in capacity or changed in 
form. 

It is, therefore, important to consider these points at the outset, and to 
provide for an expansion of the business in accordance with future needs, and 
at the same time not to disarrange or break up the general plan of the works. 
With these points in mind, the two following plans are given for enlarging 
the machine shop when more room is needed: 

First, the building may be extended to the rear across the railway track, 
the rear wall being removed and the traveling crane tracks continued through 
the length of the additional building. Doors are provided for the passage of 
cars upon the railway track, and also a specially-built car habitually used for 
connecting the floors of the old and new building, its platform being on a level 
with the two floors. Thus the machine shop capacity could be increased to 
any reasonable extent. 

Second, one, two or three wings may be built at right angles to the ma- 
chine shop and on the side opposite the power house. These might be of 
one or two stories and of any desired length. They may contain traveling 
cranes to convey material to and from the traveling crane of the main shop, 
or have convenient trolley hoists and train car tracks, according to the char- 
acter of the work to be done. 

The capacity of the foundry may be increased one third by extending it 
toward the power house. The same space may be obtained by using for 
foundry space that provided for chipping, core, and flask rooms, and provid- 



26 MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 

ing space for the latter by extending the building toward the machine 
shop. The space occupied by the wash room and water-closet will, of course, 
be taken also, and these rooms placed in a gallery, as heretofore suggested. 

To obtain additional power space for these enlargements the space occu- 
pied by the wash rooms and water-closets may be utilized and these rooms 
provided for in an addition built toward the carpenter shop. 

By some one of these plans, or a combination of them, the capacity of 
the works may be at least doubled without seriously disturbing the general 
plan here described and illustrated and without impairing the general efficiency 
of the facilities for handling the work. 

This design is in as compact a form as is advisable, with a view of suffi- 
cient yard space. Where the amount of land is ample it would be manifestly 
desirable to spread out the design more by increasing the distance between 
the machine shop and foundry at the front, and the storehouse and forge 
shop at the rear; or by lengthening the machine shop 50 to. 100 feet and thus 
add to the yard room. 

Either or both these plans might be employed where the extent of ground 
would admit of it, as it is always important to have plenty of room when it 
is possible, and it is seldom that we have too much yard space. 



CHAPTER III 

GENERAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE BUILDING 

Principal requisites. Should be erected for utility rather than ornament. Special require- 
ments of manufacturing buildings. The best type of buildings for the purpose. The 
construction of the walls. Sham work. Methods of laying bricks. Window spacing. 
Roof construction. Protection from condensation. The central portion of the machine 
shop. The traveling crane. Side portions or bays of the machine shop. The galleries. 
Dimensions of walls. The foundry. General dimensions. Central part. Side bays. 
Cupola platform. The forge shop. General dimensions. Roof ventilation. Chim- 
neys. The power house. Alternate plans. The engine room. The storehouse. 
Special construction of floor. Trolley hoists and supports. The carpenter shop. 
Storage sheds. Coal and sand sheds. Floors of storage sheds. Forge shop storage. 

Having arranged and planned the buildings for carrying on the work for 
which our plant is designed, making each of a size large enough for the equip- 
ment to be installed and the number of men required to operate it, and having 
placed the several buildings in convenient adjacency for economically passing 
the work through them, from the raw material to the finished product, let us 
now consider the construction of the buildings planned. 

Manufacturing buildings are erected for utility rather than ornament, 
and the latter characteristic is always made secondary to the practical question 
of best fitting them for the special work to be done in them. To this end one 
must be guided by several well-known conditions. 

First, the buildings should be strong enough to bear the weight and 
withstand the strain of the machinery operated in them, and the materials 
used in manufacturing, with which they are loaded. This load frequently 
varies within a wide range as to weight at different times, and is also constantly 
being shifted from one point to another, so that ample provision must be 
made for this condition. 

Second, the building must be of such construction as to be amply rigid 
for all purposes, and to a certain extent be elastic enough to remain uninjured 
under the shocks that it is liable to undergo. 

Third, there should be ample opportunity for ventilation, yet not unneces- 
sary height, as the expense of heating would be needlessly increased. 

Fourth, ample provision should be made for light, for which purpose the 

27 



28 MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 

windows should be placed at short intervals and extend nearly to the ceiling. 
At the same time an extravagant use of glass will also greatly increase the 
cost of heating. 

Fifth, the floors should be of such strength and material as to bear what- 
ever weight is to be put upon them, either regularly or temporarily. 

Sixth, numerous exits should be provided for the use of employees in case 
of fire. This becomes more imperative as the number of employees increases 
in proportion to the area of floor surface ; as for instance, in factories, particu- 
larly where boys and females are employed. 

Seventh, the roofs should be so constructed as to bear the weight of snow 
in winter, as well as the pressure of high winds ; and they should be so designed 
as to give a minimum amount of after-expense from deterioration and from 
leaking, the latter cause usually costing much more from damage to stock 
and machinery than for repairs to the roof itself. 

For manufacturing buildings in general there is probably no construction 
more satisfactory in every respect and that answers all the usual conditions 
better than brick walls and an iron roof. The walls should be of a thickness 
proper to the dimensions and purposes of the building, and, except when the 
building is for light work, should be strengthened by buttresses placed 
between the windows or groups of windows. 

In the building of brick walls much care should be taken as to the method 
of laying the bricks. It is too often the case that the wall is really two walls 
with little or no substantial connection between them. A "face" is laid up 
to the face line, and the "backing" even with the back line of the wall. If 
this leaves a space, from the regular size of the bricks failing to reach each 
other, it is frequently left as it is without being filled with pieces of bricks, 
or even with mortar. This space is not bridged over at as frequent inter- 
vals as it should be by header courses, so that we have what is practically 
a sham piece of work. 

It is one of the too prevalent customs, also, of filling only an inch or so 
of the face of the joints between the ends of the bricks with mortar. This 
is another form of sham work, and neither of the above practices should be 
allowed. 

Where very strong walls are desired, as for the brick foundation walls 
for buildings, or foundations for heavy machinery, the bricks should be laid 
in what is called the English bond, that is, the courses will be composed of 
an alternate header and stretcher brick. On the next course the header is 
laid across the center of the stretcher brick. 

Another method is the Flemish bond, which consists of alternate courses 
of headers and stretchers. 

For the side walls of shops generally, the bricks should be laid with a 



GENERAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE BUILDING 29 

header course to every five stretcher courses. It is often the practice that 
the stretcher courses are increased to seven instead of five, and we remember 
one old bricklayer who, in bemoaning some of the modern sham work, said 
that "they put in a header course every Tuesday." 

In spacing brickwork for the windows it is customary to lay them off so 
as to take a certain number of whole bricks, or a certain number of lengths 
of bricks, with the width of one brick to fill out the space required. By this 
means much cutting of bricks is avoided, and the face of the wall appears 
much more neat and regular. In laying out the plans for buildings this 
matter should be considered. 

In all cases the wall should be frequently leveled crosswise, as well as 
lengthwise, to insure a fair horizontal bearing for all the bricks, as even a 
slight inclination greatly endangers the strength of the wall. 

The roof ' proper should be supported by trusses at each division or bay, 
and connected by purlins, all securely braced ; by which construction lightness, 
combined with great strength and ample elasticity, is secured. For a covering, 
wood may be used and covered with roofing tin which should be always 
protected by a good coating of mineral paint. 

The covering may be of corrugated iron, although this has the very 
serious objection of moisture condensing on its underside and dripping into 
the interior of the building. This may be wholly prevented by laying on a 
couple of thicknesses of tar paper, or other paper impervious to water, and as 
a protection against fire from the underside of the tar paper, first laying two 
thicknesses of asbestos paper. These four layers of paper are supported by 
galvanized wire netting, tightly stretched over the purlin supports. 

This is probably the best form of roof covering yet devised for the roofs 
of manufacturing buildings, and with brick walls, truss roof, and covering as 
described the building is practically fire-proof. 

Referring to Fig. 4, the machine shop is seen to be constructed with a 
central portion 40 feet wide and covered by a traveling crane, giving a clear 
height of 40 feet beneath it. This crane is supported by wide plate girders 
resting on the main columns, and runs the entire length of the machine shop. 
It may be operated by belting and gearing, but preferably by electricity, as 
the necessary power is much more readily transmitted to any point in the length 
of the building by conducting wires and a suitable trolley than by means of 
shafts and belts with their attendant expense and annoyance. 

On each side of the central portion of the building are wings 30 feet 
wide, extending the whole length of the structure, and built in two floors, 
the upper one, or gallery, being used for light machinery. It extends across 

J The roof designs shown are substantially those adopted by the Berlin Construction Co., New 
Britain, Conn. 



5~ 



[OP CONSTRUCT! 







•ill 1 5 



I 

- 



GENERAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE BUILDING 



3i 




H -W-Zl — 



supported by girders, upon 
which floor joists are sup- 
ported, and to the under side 
of which the line-shaft hangers 
are attached. 

The side walls arc built 
20 inches thick for the first 
story, or 16 feet, and 16 inches 
thick for the remainder of the 
height, and are strengthened 
by buttresses of 8 inches pro- 
jection and 24 inches wide. 
Each bay, or division, is 18 feet 
3 inches centers, and the side 
wall is pierced for two win- 
dows on each floor, each win- 
dow being 4 feet wide; the 
lower ones 10 feet, and the 
upper ones 9 feet high. 

Above the wing roofs is 
a monitor roof construction 
having another series of win- 
dows 5 feet high, extending 
the entire length of the build- 
ing and separated one from 
the other only by about 12 
inches, thus giving ample light 
to the central portion of the 
building. Every alternate 
sash is pivoted so as to be 
opened for ventilation. 

The roof is constructed as 
has already been described, 
with an outward covering of 
corrugated iron, and has a 
pitch of 2)h inches to the foot, 
as have the roofs of all the 
buildings of the plant. The 
form of truss is the usual one, 
as shown in the engravings. 

The foundry is built on a 



y- 



MACHIXE SHOP C TRUCTK 



lai :: that . : the machine shoe mm a rentral part '-- :r-: -ride 
gs 25 fed wide each _ n the cupola side (he _ng proper is 
extended jo fed mrnish ace::: r the cupola platform, 

ing, coa roc ms Set Figs 5 and I 

The centra] Fthe I eundry .: : mred by a traveling crane supporree 

".7 gprders _ :: the mam rohnniis and having a clear space of 

p fed the side wings son : : 7m in the clem The oper: - 

§ 7 the foundry m not require this sjhl ut it Is wery imirable to have 
r" . :. :t for the steam and gases, incident to ''shaking out*' the flasks 
2 m thus ax i b much : the comfort of :m men. 
7 :7mm mmmm the mm of thesr gases the upper windows - feet in 
7e:em: ee ivei die roofs of the side wings aie ell made with piveee: 

: r istx be readily opened when necf 
The lays :r 7: 5: :e_s between ::_;mm m : e:: 6 inches centf 

The side waBs lie :: inches Efcengthened by buttresses :f 4 inches 

■■.-:::::: and 18 mm. i each bay is pre m ire mm tw : ~indows 

_ Fed wide end ir Feet high affording ample light to the side wings and, 
by the : rf the ventE toi windows m ehe monitor roof construction, com- 
pletely lighting the whole interior. 

The lowei member of the roof 

trasses 7: the side wings is of 

deed form to afford sufficient 

re em for supporting the era: 

7: trolley hoists at any point 

where they may be needed. 

7_:t rupola platform construc- 
- shown in :r:ef— meion in 
Fio - and at right an. e eh this 
FA A mor supported by 

7e timbers loans the cupola 
platform pxopei This may be 
constructed entirely 7 iron, if desired, in order to lessen the liability to dam- 
em 7 me platform should be Dowsed with sheet iron, at least ir 
imre dry of the cupolas, and should be placed at a proper height 

enpohs used 7 rem ei 3 jy way of an elevator cm: - 

nc 7 the yard tram cars, as ~m be iescrihed hereafter in anc: 

The forge shop 7 mm much heavier in proportion I size than tee 

other buil •:. A bv heaw ha mm ers 

and dr I ride So feet fc . nigh in the clear, 

and - or other obstructions interfere with the free working. The 




. : : : — \ 

m . - ~ 



GENERAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE BUILDING 



33 



roof girders are strongly built and thoroughly braced, and the lower member 
made in latticed form for supporting the usual overhead work of the shop 
as shown in Fig. 7. 

The walls are 20 inches thick and 18 feet high, strengthened by buttresses 
8 inches thick for a height of 8 feet, and for the remaining height 4 inches 
thick by 20 inches wide. The spaces or bays are 13 feet centers and the wall 
is pierced for one window to each space. The windows are 4 feet wide and 
12 feet high, and located, five on each side, three in the front and one in the 
rear, making fourteen in all. 

The roof ventilator is 12 feet wide and extends the entire length of the 
building, with openings 4 J feet high, as shown in Fig. 7. 




Fig. 7. — Cross Section through Forge Shop. 

Along the outer wall are arranged chimneys for six forges. If the system 
of downward draft is employed these would not be needed, the smoke and 
gases from all being carried to one chimney of sufficient dimensions and 
conveniently located for that purpose. 

In consequence of the arrangement necessary for these chimneys, when 
such construction must be used, the buttresses on this side are placed opposite 
the chimneys and the windows between. This necessitates the use of a steel 
I-beam in the wall over the windows for supporting the roof trusses. By 
reducing the number of chimneys to five, this may be avoided. 

The power house is of construction similar to the other buildings. The 
walls are 16 inches thick and 20 feet high, with buttresses 4 inches thick and 
20 inches wide. 12-inch walls divide the boiler room, engine room, water- 
closets and wash rooms from one another, the last two being built in two 
floors — the lower one 10 feet and the upper 9 feet high, in the clear. There 
is a ventilator of monitor construction, 12 feet wide, running the whole length 



34 



MACHINE SHOP COXSTRLXTIOX 



of the building, with pivoted window sashes on each side, 5 feet high, shown 
in Fig. 8. 

When the power required would render it necessary the entire building 
might be devoted to the boiler and engine room, and the wash rooms and 
water-closets be provided for in a side addition. They are placed as shown in 
order to secure a central location and immediate connection with the machine 
shop without encroaching upon its space. 

Plenty of light is provided for the wash rooms and water-closets by rows 
of ten windows. 3 feet wide, on each floor, the upper ones being 5 \ feet and 
the lower ones 6 feet high. 




Fig. S. — Cross Section through Power House 



The engine room and also the boiler room are lighted by four windows, 
4 feet wide and 12 feet high, in the outer wall; while two extra windows are 
placed in the end of the boiler room for the purpose of giving ample light in 
the rear of the boilers. 

In the end of the boiler room is a double door 12 feet wide, one half of 
which only need be opened to admit the coal car. Xear this door are the 
track scales for weighing the coal as it is brought in. The tram track is 
continued the length of the boiler room, in front of the boilers and through 
the door into the engine room, as a convenient means of bringing in or taking 
out any small machines such as dynamos or similar apparatus. 

The engine room connects with the machine shop by an opening 14 feet 
wide and 16 feet high, through which engines or large pieces of machinery 
may be moved, and through which main belts may be run. This space may 
be closed up, after the power plant is installed, either by doors or by a wooden 
partition containing suitable doors. 

The storehouse for finished machinery, and the carpenter shop adjoining, 



GENERAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE BUILDING 



35 



Fig. 9, arc of the same general construction as the other buildings, so far as 
the walls and roofs are concerned. Both have 16-inch walls, 14 feet high for 
the carpenter shop and 18 feet for the storehouse, and strengthened by but- 
tresses of 4 inches projection by 16 inches in width. 

The storehouse floor is 3 feet above the level of the machine shop floor. 
Near the back wall (next to the railway track) the floor is cut out and a spe- 
cially constructed tram car traverses the space, the top being on a level with 
the floor. 




Fig. 9. — Cross Section through Storehouse, Carpenter Shop, Tracks, etc. 



This car track crosses the machine shop floor, and passes over the scales 
located in it, directly under the traveling crane. By this arrangement ma- 
chines may be transferred from any point in the shop to this car, standing 
on the scales, and may be weighted, run into the storehouse and stored away 
or conveniently run into a car on the railway track, the top of the cars being 
also on a level with the storehouse floor. 

In case the machinery built is of sufficient weight to make such an arrange- 
ment desirable, the lower member of the roof trusses should be of latticed 
form, or, if needed, several of them may be plate girders, on which may run 
trolley hoists for lifting a machine from the tram car and running it back 
into the rear of the storehouse or out upon a railway car. The girders may 
project out over the railway tracks sufficiently to permit of easy handling in 
loading cars. 

Two sliding doors, one of 8 feet and the other of 12 feet in width and 
both 12 feet high, are provided for shipping convenience. The storehouse is 
lighted by eleven windows, each 4 feet wide and 10 feet high. 

Additional windows might be located in the rear wall, over the storage 
sheds and in the end toward the forge shop if the machinery manufactured 
was of such small size and such variety as to make a division of the storehouse 
necessary to properly store and care for it. 



36 



MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 




Fig. io. — Cross Section through Carpenter Shop. 



The carpenter shop is provided with a sliding door, 6 feet wide, in the 
side where a branch of the tram tracks enters, and one in each end io feet 
wide. The shop is lighted by thirteen windows, 2,2 feet wide and 6 feet high. 
The roof trusses are placed 15 feet from center to center, the lower members 
of which may be latticed to afford support for the shafting driving the 
wood-working machinery. See Fig. 10. 

The storage sheds for 
coal, sand, coke, etc., as well 
as those for cast iron, steel 
chips, and similar materials, 
may be built of wood, but a 
brick construction will be 
found to be much more satis- 
factory. 

The walls should be 12 
inches thick and 8 feet high 
on the side next to the yard. 
The roof may be what is termed a " gravel roof"; that is, consisting of wooden 
rafters covered with i-inch rough boards, over which is placed tarred 
paper, then a coating of well-boiled gas tar, and upon this a layer of gravel 
stones of from J-inch to f-inch diameter and perfectly free from dirt. This 
roof should have an inclination of \ inch to 1 foot. 

For the coal and sand sheds the openings in the walls may be 3 feet high, 
beginning just under the roof, and 6 feet wide, on the side next to the railway 
track. These should be closed by hinged doors of two thicknesses of |-inch 
boards, the grain of each thickness crossing the other at an angle of 45 degrees. 
On the side of these sheds, next to the yard, sliding doors, hung from 
the top and usually not over 10 feet wide, are most practical. To be substan- 
tial they should be made as described above, of two thicknesses of |-inch 
boards, and so arranged that each alternate door will slide in front of the 
others. 

Inside of these and about a foot from them planks 12 inches wide and 
from 2 to 3 inches thick should be set on edge, to sustain the weight of material 
behind them. These should be fitted in grooves at the ends so as to be easily 
removable, as occasion may require, and they may have as a central support 
a scantling set in a hole in the floor and properly supported at the top. 

The floors of these sheds may be of 2 -inch planks, supported by scantling 
4x4 inches, laid 18 inches from center to center. But much better than this, 
and cheaper in course of time, will be brick paving, laid as will be described 
in the chapter on floors. 

The construction of the shed in the rear of the forge shop should be as 



GENERAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE BUILDING 37 

described above, except that there will be wood floors for the wash room and 
water-closets. 

The questions of foundations and floors have been here omitted, and 
will form the subject of other chapters, wherein will be considered various 
forms of foundations for various purposes and of floors, both of wood and 
other materials, and wherein some of the reasons for the failure of many of 
them now in use will be pointed out. 



CHAPTER IV 

SLOW-BURNING CONSTRUCTION * 

What it is. So called fire-proof buildings. The failure of the older forms of construction. 
The reasons why. Wrong choice of materials. Wrong ideas of the proper construction 
for manufacturing buildings. Economy of the system of slow-burning construction. 
Special features of the system. Construction of floors. Concealed spaces. Brick 
walls. Ceilings and wooden walls. Kalsomining. Compound beams. Care of main 
timbers. Wooden columns. 

Much has been said and written and many millions of dollars have been 
spent in the effort to construct fire-proof buildings. 

Buildings have been constructed almost entirely of iron, steel, and glass; 
magnificent in appearance and costing princely sums of money to erect. 
They have been popularly called " fire-proof," yet the burning of their contents, 
or the effects of the conflagration of buildings near them, have so warped, 
twisted, and bent the metal work of their construction as to leave them a 
mass of unsightly ruins, a veritable scrap heap of old iron and steel. 

Fine buildings have been constructed of solid granite, splendid in pro- 
portions and costly in their erection, and that seemed designed to stand for 
ages. Yet the excessive heat from the burning of buildings by which they 
were surrounded, and the action of the water from the firemen's hose on their 
heated surfaces, have practically destroyed them. 

And in fact, in a great many cases less prominent than those above 
mentioned perhaps, expensive structures, apparently impregnable to the de- 
structive action of fire, have fallen a more or less easy prey to the first serious 
conflagration that assailed them, and the hopes of their well meaning and 
conscientious designers have been doomed to disappointment, and their owners 
to those serious losses which no amount of insurance ever covers. 

Such have been the results of the patient and really able efforts of many 
conscientious architects. Nor have the efforts of these builders in the past 
been more astray on the matter of materials with which to construct buildings, 
to resist the ravages of fire, than in the matter of form and detail in designing 

a The information necessary for describing and illustrating the type of buildings known as " Slow- 
burning" has been derived from the excellent reports of the Insurance Engineering Station, Boston, Mass. 
under the able direction of Mr. Edward Atkinson, an acknowledged authority on this subject. 

38 




SLOW-BURNING CONSTRUCTION 39 

(hem, not only to be safe from fire, but practically useful for the purposes for 
which they were intended. 

Of the older construction of buildings where more attention was some- 
times paid to appearances than to practical usefulness, and roofs were built 
in such ornate style and so ornamented with turrets, peaks, and dormer 
windows as to be hardly recognized as manufacturing buildings, it is grati- 
fying to know that they are now things of the past, many of them having been 
destroyed by fires, invited by their faulty construction, and the wisdom thereby 
gained by costly experience preventing their reproduction. 

But after years and years of the study and effort of many good men in 
this field, it is still an open question whether we shall ever get to the point 
where we can construct a building adapted to the practical wants of manufac- 
turing operations that we can say is really fire-proof. 

Such being the result of so much effort and expense in seeking for that 
which has, thus far, not been attained, it would seem wise to rather lower 
the standard of what is aimed at, and, instead of striving to build actually 
fire-proof buildings, to endeavor to design the best form of a slow-burning 
construction. 

In so doing we will do well to remember some of the more important 
things learned by the experience of the past. 

While it is doubtless true that many of the so-called fire-proof buildings 
might also be denominated slow-burning, yet it is also true that slow-burning 
construction, as now generally understood, is of a much more economical and 
simple form, and in a large majority of cases consists of wood and brick, 
and sometimes of wood alone. 

To such an extent is this true that many of these buildings are constructed, 
the several stories being taken into the account, at a cost of less than eighty 
cents per square foot of floor surface, while the factor of safety is very high. 

It has been amply proven that while a steel post or column may be sprung 
so badly during the early stages of a fire as to fail to sustain its load, a wooden 
post would not be burned through, but would continue to perform its office. 

Wooden beams that in a protracted fire may burn through aijd allow the 
floor to drop, will ofttimes not do as much damage as is caused by the twisting 
of steel girders, which, becoming distorted, force other parts out of place and 
destroy portions of the walls on which they rest. 

The special features of slow-burning construction may be said to be: 
so disposing timber and plank in heavy, solid masses as to expose the least 
number of corners or ignitable projections to the action of fire, and in such a 
manner that when fire does occur it may be most easily reached by the water 
from the sprinklers, or from the firemen's hose. 

When several floors are necessary they are separated as much as possible 



4 o MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 

by automatically closing hatches for elevators, by protecting stairways with 
non-combustible partitions, by avoiding light wooden partitions as much as 
may be, and by avoiding varnish or other rapidly burning finish on ceilings 
or floor timbers. 

Floors should not be supported in the usual manner by joists placed 
closely together, but should be constructed of 3-inch planks, supported by 
beams placed about 8 feet centers. This will give free play to the water 
from the sprinklers, or the sweep of the water from the fire hose. It is a fact 
that in buildings having deep floor joists, placed closely together, one side of 
these timbers may be actively burning while the water is pouring on the 
opposite side. 

Care should be taken to avoid concealed spaces where fire may exist and 
water from a hose or the sprinklers may not freely enter. 

Brick walls should not be covered or sheathed with wood, and in cases 
where this cannot be avoided, the spaces between the wall and the sheathing 
should be as small as possible. 

Ceilings, or wooden walls, may be effectually protected by covering them 
with expanded metal, wire lath, or dovetailed laths, and plastering with a 
hard, plain lime-mortar, which is sufficiently porous to permit the seasoning 
of the woodwork to which it is attached. 

It is better to avoid the use of oil paint or varnish entirely, on the interior 
of manufacturing buildings, on account of its retaining all of the moisture that 
may happen to be in the wood, and so hastening the process of decay. Kal- 
somine, whitewash, or the water paints, so-called, are porous and consequently 
allow the seasoning process to go on unimpeded. 

But as a rule, timbers may be left unprotected except in places very 
dangerous on account of fire, since any fire which will seriously impair or 
destroy a heavy timber will already have done its work by destroying other 
and lighter parts of the structure. 

In many instances it may be desirable to substitute compound beams 
for single timbers. These are made by placing two or more beams or planks 
side by side and securing them by through and through bolts. It is frequently 
easier to obtain well-seasoned lumber of the smaller dimensions, and any 
weak place in one is supported and reinforced by the other when secured to 
it. Ordinarily the thickness of such timbers should be from one third to 
one half their width. In building up a compound beam, the separate timbers 
should be placed slightly apart, so as to permit ventilation to their surfaces, 
and thus render them less liable to decay. 

The main timbers should not be cut into more than is absolutely necessary 
for securing braces, the support of horizontal timbers, and for similiar pur- 
poses, as the timbers are very materially weakened by even a slight cut. For 



SLOW-BURNING CONSTRUCTION 41 

the same reason, no more holes for bolts, rods, etc., should be bored in the 
timbers than is really necessary to fasten them together, or to aid in supporting 
other timbers. Holes used for bolting together compound beams should be 
located, not opposite each other, but in a zig-zag form. 

Wooden columns or posts should have a hole, say one inch to one and a 
half inches in diameter bored through their entire length, and then connected 
with the outer air by two half-inch holes bored through the column near 
either end. By this method, the moisture originally contained in them may 
have an opportunity to evaporate. 



CHAPTER V 

SLOW-BURNING CONSTRUCTION OF BRICK AND WOOD 

The most substantial form. Clearly shown in the engraving. Strength necessary. Vibra- 
tion. Dimensions of timbers. Dimensions of walls. Wall plates. Dimensions of 
supporting posts. Special construction of floors. Dimensions of floor timbers. Roof 
construction. Gutters not necessary. Conductors. Windows. Application of gutters 
to buildings of over two stories in height. Nominal dimensions given. 

The most substantial method of erecting a building of the slow-burning 
type of construction is with brick walls, properly strengthened by pilasters, 
or buttresses, and the interior work, floors, and roof composed almost entirely 
of substantial timbers and 3-inch matched planks. 

This form of construction is shown in isometrical perspective in Fig. 11. 
The vertical section of the walls is made through the pilasters, between the 
windows, the thickness of the walls of the panels being according to their 
height and width. In this case only two floors are shown, but any reasonable 
height may be constructed in the same manner, provided that the walls of 
the lower floors are thickened according to the height, and that the central 
supporting posts are proportionately larger for the lower floors. 

Consideration should also be given to the strength necessary to support 
any unusually heavy machinery that is to be placed on the lower floors. 

As the height of the building is increased, the question of vibration be- 
comes more important and additional strength of walls and timbers must be 
provided to meet it. 

For a building of three floors the walls would be about as follows: For 
light work and no machinery to cause vibration, 16 inches for the first story, 
1 2 inches for the second story, and 8 inches for the third story. For a building 
for heavier work, and where light machinery is to be used, these figures would 
be 20, 16, and 12 inches respectively. For higher buildings of say four stories, 
for light factory work, we may build the first-story walls 24 inches, the second- 
story 20 inches, the third-story 16 inches, and the fourth-story 12 inches. 
These should, of course, be strengthened by pilasters in the usual manner. 

In all cases where the building is much beyond the usual width, the walls 
of the top story should not be less than 12 inches thick. 

The pilasters should be about 50 per cent thicker at the base than the 
wall of the first story, and about 50 per cent thicker than the wall of the top 

42 



SLOW-BURNING CONSTRUCTION OF BRICK AND WOOD 43 




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44 MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 

story at a point two thirds of the height of the windows. Between these two 
points it tapers in a straight line, or has a regular " batter." From this upper 
point it is gradually thickened till at the top it is double the thickness of the 
wall. While these proportions are nominal, they are very nearly in accord 
with the regular practice. Upon these pilasters the floor timbers and the 
rafters have their bearing. 

The walls are built to form bays of 8 feet centers. The floor timbers 
are beveled off at the ends as shown, where they enter the walls, and rest on 
cast iron wall plates, one of which is shown on an enlarged scale in Fig. 12. 
Their inner ends are carried by wooden posts, each of which are cut to the 
length which the height of the story is to be "in the clear," the space occupied 
by the floor timbers being taken up by cast iron "pintles" located as shown 
in Fig. 11, and of the form shown on an enlarged scale in Fig. 13. 

By this method the supporting posts will not be disturbed by the burning 
away of a floor timber, even though it falls and carries a portion of the floor 
with it. 

These posts should be of decreasing dimensions as they go up. For 
instance, if it is necessary to have them 12x12 inches on the first floor, those 
of the second floor will be 10 x 10 inches, those of the third floor 8x8 inches, 
and those of the fourth floor 6x6 inches, assuming, of course, that the weights 
of stock and material are much lighter on the upper floors, and no machinery 
employed on the two upper floors. Otherwise the posts should not be less 
than 8x8 inches on the top floor, and increasing in the above proportion 
on the other floors. 

The floors are formed of 3-inch planks, whose lengths may be 16 or 
24 feet, and which should break joints every three feet. As a matter of 
economy, these planks should be grooved on both edges and have tongues 
of a separate piece of wood introduced. The planks should not be over 
6 inches wide. 

Upon this floor is laid three thicknesses of rosin-sized paper, each layer 
being mopped with tar, rendering the floor water-proof. Upon this paper is 
laid a top floor of 1 J-inch hard wood, which may be at any time renewed when 
it becomes worn out, without disturbing the stability of the structure. 

The floor timbers may be, say, 12 x 14 inches for a span of twenty feet 
between supports. Compound beams composed of two 6 x 14 inch timbers 
may be used instead of solid timbers, and in some respects will be preferable, 
as has been pointed out in a previous chapter. 

The dimensions of floor timbers may also be decreased in the higher 
floors, but not to the same extent as the supporting posts are. Their depth 
must, of course, have reference to their length, which is constant, as well as 
to the lighter loads which they are to support. 



SLOW-BURNING CONSTRUCTION OF BRICK AND WOOD 45 

The edges of the floor planks should be kept clear of the face of the 
walls by a space of about half an inch, as a safeguard against the expansion 
of the planks during damp weather. These spaces should be covered by 
light battens, both above and on the under side. 

The hard wood top floor may be laid at right angles with the 3-inch 
plank, or diagonally, if it is desired to give greater stability to the structure. 
If these are laid diagonally, those of each succeeding floor should be at right 
angles with those on the next floor below, thus forming very efficient bracing 
in two directions. 

The roof timbers may be 10 x 12 inches, and have a pitch of one-half 
inch to a foot. The roof is composed of 3-inch planks, the same as the 
floors, and covered with three thicknesses of roofing felt, and over this with 
tar and gravel, in the usual manner. If preferred, heavy roofing paper may 
be put on, then mopped with tar and heavy roofing tin used. The roofing 
paper under the tin will prevent the difficulty of condensation. 

The rafters should be fastened at the outer ends by vertical bolts anchored 
in the walls, and by f-inch iron dogs where they meet in the center. 
Ordinarily it is not necessary to have a supporting post in the center where 
they are joined together. 

There need be no gutters on this style of roof, as a sloping concrete strip 
2 feet wide laid around the building, and closely against the foundation 
wall, will answer the purpose of carrying off the water from the roof as well 
as protecting the wall from saturation by surface water. However, gutters 
may be added, and in some later examples are so arranged as to hold the 
water from flowing over the eaves and pass it along to conductor pipes running 
down inside the building so as to be safe from the liability of freezing up in 
winter. These gutters are more readily applied to roofs covered with tin 
than to gravel roofs, owing to the difficulty of making a water-tight joint 
betw T een gravel and tin and, also, the liability of the tar on a gravel roof melting 
and running down the sides of the gutter and into the conductor pipes, if the 
sides of the gutter are formed of tar and gravel, the same as the roof. 

For buildings of over two stories it is advisable to have gutters, as it is 
also where the building forms one side of a much used yard or driveway, 
where the dripping water, liable to be blown about by the wind, would make 
it very objectionable. 

The windows will be constructed in the manner described for windows 
generally, in the chapter on lighting, to which the reader is referred. It will 
be understood that the figures herein given for walls and beams are nominal, 
and that in each individual case they must be of such dimensions as are called 
for by the loads and strains they will have to sustain, the vibration to which 
they will be subjected, and the height of the building. 



CHAPTER VI 

SLOW-BURNING CONSTRUCTION OP WOOD ONLY 

A practical form of construction. Should not be over four stories. Two stories preferable 
for a machine shop. Foundation walls. Supporting posts. Strengthening knees. 
Lengths of bays. Side walls. Vertical planking. Steel shingles. Cold water paints. 
Ground floor timbers. Floor planks. Air spaces. Floor laid directly on coal-tar 
concrete. Three methods of floor construction. Improved form. Another plan. 
Second-floor construction. Roof construction. Roof planking. Truss bracing the 
framework. Strength of this form of construction. 

It is entirely feasible to construct a practical form of machine shop or 
factory building entirely of wood, and on account of the relative cheapness of 
the materials it will be necessarily more economical to do so than to build it 
of brick and wood combined. 

It is not usual, however, to build in this form over four stories in height, 
and it is perhaps better to confine the height to two stories, when it is to be 
used as a machine shop, or for manufacturing when machinery is to be used, 
unless it is of a light variety. 

Fig. 14 is an isometrical perspective of this form of construction, shown 
of two stories. 

Foundation walls are built on all four sides, the same as if brick walls are 
to be erected. Piers are built to support the central posts, and all posts and 
sills rest upon cast iron plates bedded in cement mortar on the walls and piers. 

All posts extend from the walls or piers to the rafters. The floor timbers 
of the second floor rest upon wooden knees bolted to the posts. If preferred, 
these knees may be made of cast iron, but the difference in the cost of the two 
will not be great, and there will be the liability of the cast iron to crack under 
very heavy and sudden strains unless carefully designed for the purpose. 
In case they are used, all component parts or members, such as the resting 
plates, strengthening ribs, etc., should be of nearly equal thickness, in order 
to prevent undue strain on the metal in cooling after they are cast. Ribs, 
say three quarters of an inch to one inch square, according to size of the 
timber to be supported, may be formed on them and these let into grooves 
cut in the timbers, which will materially assist the bolts in holding them in 
proper position, and in resisting strains. 

46 



SLOW-BURNING CONSTRUCTION OF WOOD ONLY 47 




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The bays of this form of boa] ding are built about 8 feet crater^ and 

the transverse span of the floor timbers should be about 20 feet never to 
exceed 25 feet 

The sides of the building may be of 2§-inck : : ;- - - : r 

the inside, tongued and grooved, or better, with a groove in each edge and sepa- 
rate splines put in, and spiked on h : r_: : r: - ir : ::r :r - s « _see _. 
the ends of the planks reaching them. Tie '".izki e: _ei.s: : : 
s (16 feet) in length, and nominally - . .: : .-_;-.. fee: As :/.- 
spaces above and below the windows ire the ::.. -:z ::.- 
is horizontally continuous, it will be better to hffeak joints ewry two pBamfa. 

If preferred, the planes rerey be pu: :-r_ Ttrri: :';; —reed 

horizontal spiking strips rerey :»e le: ire:: :he roses :: seilee: : :. ihei: seerfree 
at the tops and bottoms of the windo - e 

A very strong and rigid structure may be constructed by applfing the 
planks in a diagonal position, thus bracire :'r_e :::zr ::•: ir 1 errs: ef eeer.sd 
manner. The waste of materials wiQ be some^r.;: _:.:;;. 
cost will be considerably higher. 

Outside of this planking may be appl: e : : : rr . : . - : : _: ; r s r -: . : - 7 - . 
shingles (so-called), ox sheet steel stamped :: re:: re-sen: :ler dosrrds .: s::zee 

work. A large variety of this materia is r : — re ee : e :r arrest: : f :: rr ; ~ 

e 7isil} T applied, attractive in appearance 7:; :.:.:: ':ze ~ l-z. her: e;iir_:e: 
and nearly impassable to any ordinary fire. 

The timber work showing insic 7 :: — el" :: ::: :: : ~: s:re :: dee se: 
floor planks, and the roof planks, should be tlereee: . 
m ined or covered with any of the s> raided : :.: — : :e: aires ._. : 
be of any desired tint neat appearance, and e_rd::7t:r ere.: 

timber to season nearly as well as if i: —ere r_ : : : : 7:7 : a: ad 

The ground floor may be laid upon floor timbers e_ ; see:— r e: ede 
of the engraving, and should consist of 3-inch planks, about 6 inches wide, 
grooved on each edge, and he "7 see arate seder es r::7 1 ir Trey 
two bays (16 feet) in length, and break joints e*ery three Jeet- Upon these - 
should be laid a top flooring of ij-inch hard wood, runninz 
tion as the 3-inch planks. These planks maybe taken up and replaced at 
any time when they become worn and unfit for further use. without disturb- 
ing the main flooring. 

To preserve this floe: from de:. ai: snare e: leas: ede ; : 

the floor timbers, and twice that is better, should be left under it and be 
ventilated by small grated openings in : e :' : : 

At the left of the engraving is shown a : 
concrete. There are three methods of puttinr 
The first style is to lay down a foundation or bed off small crushed stone or 






SLOW-BURNING CONSTRUCTION OF WOOD ONLY 49 

cinders to the depth of six inches, for ordinary purposes. Upon this is laid 
two inches of coal-tar concrete, or of sand mixed with hot coal-tar, and directly 
upon this is laid 3-inch planks, not tongued or grooved, and over them, and at 
right angles to them, a top floor of i^-inch hard wood planks. These being 
spiked together form a solid and rigid mass supported by the concrete. 

This form may be much improved upon by laying 3x4 inch sleepers, 
which have previously been mopped with hot tar, on the crushed stone, or 
cinder bed, leveling them up and then filling in the spaces flush with the top 
of the sleepers with hot tar concrete, then spiking down a main floor of 2- 
inch planks, not matched, and over this, at right angles to it, nailing down a 
top floor of ij-inch hard wood planks. 

Still another plan is to lay down the crushed stone or cinders as before, 
drive stakes four feet apart each way, the tops level with what is to be the 
under side of the floor. To these spike nailing strips, say of 2 x 4 inch scant- 
ling, set edgewise, previously tarred on the bottom, and fill up the spaces 
with coal-tar concrete as before, and spike down 2-inch planks. This 
makes a cheap floor and is sufficiently solid and durable for many cases. If 
it is to be subjected to hard usage, it will be advisable to cover it with a top 
floor which can be readily renewed when worn out. 

The second floor "is built like that in the preceding chapter, that is, 
3-inch grooved planks, with separate splines, two thicknesses of rosin- 
sized paper, mopped with hot tar, and a top floor of hard wood ii inches 
thick. The 3-inch planks are at least two bays (16 feet) in length and 
break joints every three feet. 

The roof is built with the rafters supported on the side and center posts, 
fastened at the center with j-inch iron dogs and bolted to the side posts 
and to the knees of the center posts. The rafters have a pitch of one half 
inch per foot, and are covered with 3-inch planks, grooved on both edges, 
joined by separate splines, two bays (16 feet) in length and breaking joints 
every three feet. The roof planks may be covered with roofing paper mopped 
with tar, and over this thick roofing tin, or with two or three thicknesses of 
roofing felt, and then tar and gravel, in the usual manner. 

If it is desirable to erect a frame that shall be entirely self-sustaining, 
before any planking is put on, it can be done by letting into the outer posts 
spiking strips in a diagonal position, forming truss-like braces. These will 
be under the windows on the first floor, and between the first and second-floor 
windows. In this manner the frame may be rendered very rigid. 

While this construction is simple and apparently not heavy, such a build- 
ing will sustain great weights in proportion to the amount of materials used in 
their construction, and will successfully withstand shocks, strains, and vibration 
that w r ould seriously injure structures of seemingly much greater strength. 



CHAPTER VII 

ONE-STORY MACHINE SHOP OF BRICK AMD WOOD 

Their economical construction. Economy of operation. The walls. Central supporting 
"■:f:i 7: ;_-":.:.-._- :::.:,t y.:~: ::;::- F:*izii:i:z itrs. Floor construction. Floor 
foundations. Roof construction. Mo gutters usually necessary. Form of gutters, if 
used. Window construction in monitor roof. Kind of glass preferable. Side window 
construction. Window frames. A practical, efficient, and economical building. 

For machine shops on level land where little grading or preliminary 
preparation is necessary, and when the stock, materials, and machinery are all 
comparatively heavy, one-story shops may be very economically built, accord- 
ing to the plan represented in Fig. 15. 

Such a building is not only economical to construct, but also to operate, 
in that stock and material is easily and cheaply moved from place to place; 
a traveling crane space is provided; it can be built of any length, and nearly 
any convenient width; it may be well lighted, no matter in what direction it 
faces; the form of the timber work renders the hanging of shafting and the 
putting up of countershafts convenient and economical; it is easy to heat and 
may be readily ventilated, and the heavy plank roof is free from the trouble 
of condensation in cold weather. 

The walls are of brick, 16 inches thick, and the divisions into window 
spaces or bays are 10 feet. No pilasters are necessary on a wall of this 
height, unless very heavy machinery or material is to be employed. 

The piers between the windows furnish support for the roof timbers, 
which are 8 x 16 inches, and placed 10 feet centers. :.nd have a pitch of one 
half inch to the foot. 

The central posts are 10 x 10 inches, and in addition to furnishing support 
for the inner ends of the roof timbers, they also support the monitor roof 
structure, whose rafters are cut to the necessary form to give the roof a pitch 
of one half inch to the foot. To insure rigidity, and to resist wind-pressure, 
they are braced as shown. If the building is to be for very heavy work the 
central posts should be 12 x 12 inches. 

Along the insides of the central space is run a timber support for the 
track of the traveling crane. These timbers are bolted to the posts and in 

5= 



ONE-STORY MACHINE SHOP OF BRICK AND WOOD 51 




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addition arc supported by brack- 
ets, also bolted to the posts. 
These brackets may be of either 
hard wood or of cast iron. If 
the latter, they may have a rib 
let into the post, for additional 
strength. If the traveling crane 
is to handle very heavy loads it 
will be necessary to support the 
horizontal timber by auxiliary 
posts bolted to the main posts 
and the horizontal timber rest- 
ing upon their upper ends. 

The foundation piers on 
which the central posts rest 
should be deep and have a broad 
base, as they will probably be 
called upon to sustain much 
greater weights than the founda- 
tion for the side walls, particu- 
larly if the shop is designed for 
heavy work. 

The floors should have 
ample foundation support, and 
should be constructed by putting 
down from six to ten inches of 
broken stone or cinders, well 
rammed down. Upon this bed 
floor timbers 4x6 inches may 
be laid four feet apart, first ap- 
plying hot tar to their under 
sides. These having been care- 
fully leveled up, the spaces and 
all interstices under them should 
be carefully filled with a concrete 
of sand of very clean, fine 
gravel, mixed with hot coal-tar. 
When this has thoroughly set 
and hardened, a floor of 3-inch 
planks may be spiked down. 
Over this, and at right angles 



52 MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 

with it, should be laid a ij-inch hard wood floor, which may be readily 
renewed when it is worn out. , The floor timbers and the top floor should 
run lengthwise of the building and the 3-inch planks crosswise. 

A concrete floor may be laid in the central portion, and the above method 
of plank floor be laid in the side portions. 

Where the machinery to be used in the side portions of the building is 
of moderate weight, and the stock to be handled therein is not particularly 
heavy, the foundations for the floor need not be of such a substantial character 
as that described. Probably four or six inches of broken stone or cinders 
will be quite sufficient for the purpose. The floor planks, too, may be lighter, 
say 2-inch for the main floor and il for the top floor, and the floor timbers 
4x4 inches. 

It is assumed that in all cases the ground has been properly prepared and 
leveled up before the crushed stone or cinder bed is put down. For this very 
necessary preparation the reader is referred to the chapter on foundations. 

By lessening the depth of the foundation and reducing the thickness of 
the planks, the expense is considerably reduced and, under the conditions 
mentioned, the efficiency of the building maintained. 

The roof is composed of 3-inch planks, 6 inches wide, with a groove in 
each edge, and joined by a separate spline, and should be 20 feet long, so as 
to reach over two spaces between rafters. They should break joints every 
six planks. Upon these planks is laid either heavy roofing paper, mopped 
with tar, and then thick roofing tin, or three thicknesses of roofing felt, then 
coated with hot tar and covered with clean gravel in the usual manner. 

No gutters are necessary, the water dripping from the eaves being caught 
by a strip of concrete 2 feet wide all around the foundation and inclining 
about 2 inches. This not only takes the water from the roof, but protects 
the foundation from surface water. 

When the building is so located, from its position with reference to other 
buildings, or to a yard where work is being carried on, that it is not advisable 
to run roof water off on the ground, gutters may be formed of tin, or better, 
of galvanized iron, with proper connecting pipes to carry off the water. If 
the gutters are formed of the roofing felt, tar, and gravel, they will have to 
be of rather flat sides in order to prevent the tar from running down the con- 
ductor pipes when melted by the hot summer weather. 

The windows of the monitor roof may be set singly, say 3i feet wide, 
between the uprights supporting the roof, or they may be made with double 
sashes in one frame, giving two windows, 3 feet wide each. The top sash 
should be hung on pivots so as to be opened for ventilation. Ribbed glass 
will be preferable for these windows, to avoid the glaring light which plain 
glass would admit upon the erecting floor under the traveling crane. 



ONE-STORY MACHINE SHOP OF BRICK AND WOOD 53 

The side windows may be of two or three sashes, preferably three, the 
upper sash pivoted and the other two sliding sashes. Ribbed glass should be 
used in all but the bottom sash, which will very much improve the cheerfulness 
of the shop by being of clear glass. 

The side window frames may be made of the form shown in the back 
wall, the upper portion being hinged or pivoted for ventilation, and the lower 
portion divided into two sashes on each side; but the dark shadow cast by 
the center upright in a double window frame is avoided if we make the window 
wider and employ a single sash in width. 

As will be readily seen, the entire building is designed and constructed 
with a view of producing a practical, efficient, and commodious structure and 
one that will be, at the same time, as well adapted to the special uses and 
purposes for which it is intended as many buildings which are much more 
elaborate and costly; and still to so construct it as to make it a typical example 
of slow-burning construction. 



CHAPTER VIII 

SAW-TOOTH CONSTRUCTION OF ROOFS 

The newest form of shop roof. Appearance and symmetry sacrificed to utility. Perfect 
illumination. Broad buildings may be properly lighted. Preferable for large areas. 
Economy of heating buildings with this form of roof. Roof angles. Roof construction. 
Steel and wood. Example of this form of building. Side walls. A high central space. 
Materials used in the construction. General design. Traveling cranes. Auxiliary 
cranes. Distribution of power for traveling cranes. The electric system. Roof 
trusses of steel. Roof trusses of wood. Ventilating windows. Ribbed glass. Roof 
planking on steel trusses. Roof planking on wood trusses. Gutters and valleys. 
Conductor pipes. Economical construction. 

One of the most important advances in the design of machine shops and 
manufacturing buildings of the past few years is what is generally known as 
the " saw-tooth" construction of roofs. 

Appearance, uniformity, and symmetry, are sacrificed to the idea of 
practical usefulness; the principal object being to secure as perfect and 
equal illumination as possible over the entire floor, whether the buildings are 
large or small. 

Heretofore this has been one of the difficulties not entirely overcome, and 
in consequence of this drawback it has not been possible to construct buildings 
beyond a certain width, owing, in this respect, to the dark zone along the center. 
With this new method of lighting we may practically make them as wide as 
we please and be assured that the central portion is, for all practical purposes, 
as well lighted as near the side walls. This is a great advantage in buildings 
in which large and heavy machinery is to be constructed, as this class of 
work may be much more economically built in shops having but one story; 
and as the earth furnishes the best foundation for a floor for heavy weights, 
this is desirable on that account. By this observation it is not meant, of course, 
that floors are to be laid directly upon the ground. 

Again, for this class of work a large area is needed, and to construct 
comparatively narrow buildings in order that we may have the center of the 
room well lighted, is expensive as well as inconvenient in moving large 
machines, or in working around them. 

By this method of construction the buildings may be very broad and 

54 



SAW-TOOTH CONSTRUCTION OF ROOFS 



55 




56 MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 

low and consequently easy to heat, and, as has been said, with good illumina- 
tion over the entire floor. 

The essential feature of the saw-tooth construction consists in forming 
the roof in broken sections, the roof proper having an inclination of about 
fifteen degrees, and the glazed portions an inclination of about sixty degrees. 

Fig. 1 6 is a longitudinal section and Fig. 17 a transverse or cross- section 
of a machine shop with this type of roof, the construction being of steel. 
Fig. 18 and Fig. 19 represent a similar roof with wood used in its construc- 
tion instead of steel. In Fig. 20 is given a perspective view of the machine 
shop when finished, showing the general arrangement of the high central 
portion and the lower portions at each side. 

The side walls are built in the usual manner, with pilasters to strengthen 
them. They are pierced for windows on the same general plan as in the 
previously described buildings. 

The plan of the building is the well-known one wherein a high central 
space is provided for an erecting floor, over which a heavy traveling crane is 
mounted, covering every part of this floor. The sides of this building, where 
it reaches above the side portions, may be planked up and covered with tarred 
paper and then tin, or, still better, with the specially stamped sheet steel. 
Corrugated steel or iron is sometimes used. Either of these plans will answer 
the purpose. 

The side portions are built considerably lower as the same height is not 
here necessary or desirable. These portions are provided with smaller trav- 
eling cranes, running upon I-beams or girders which project into the central 
space, as shown in Fig. 17, so that these cranes are capable of depositing 
their loads within the reach of, and under, the main crane. 

If much heavy work is to be done, each of the bays, on both sides of the 
central portion, is supplied with one of these cranes, as shown in Fig. 16 and 
Fig. 17. By this means any load may be quickly and conveniently transferred 
from any one point, within any one of the bays to any point within any other 
bay, or to any point in the central erecting space, by the combined use of the 
main and secondary cranes. 

In many cases it will be necessary to have these secondary cranes on one 
side only of the central space, the other side portion being reserved for ma- 
chines and work of a lighter description. So, also, it may not be necessary 
to equip all the bays on one side, even, with secondary cranes, while it may be 
necessary, and very convenient, to so equip several bays in this way. The 
nature of the work may be such that it will be convenient to equip several 
bays on each side and at one end with secondary cranes so as to arrange all 
the heavy work across the end of the shop instead of along the side. 

As a matter of course, if traveling cranes are to be used over the bays 



SAW-TOOTH CONSTRUCTION OF ROOFS 57 

we must provide such a system of driving power as not to interfere with 
them. Shafting may be used near the side walls for driving machines 
under it or near to it, but the main dependence will have to be the electric 
system, which, with separate motors for each machine, or one motor for a 
group of machines located closely together, seems to be the favorite method 
of driving. 

Fig. 16 shows the most approved form of truss for supporting this type 
of roof, and Fig. 1 7 gives the form of girders used to support the ridges of the 
roof where the glazed portion joins the roof proper. This construction is of 
light structural steel and no more members are used than is absolutely neces- 
sary, hence the entrance of light is very slightly interrupted and still there is 
sufficient strength for all practical purposes. 

The glazing of the light portions should receive much attention, in order 
to avoid leakages, as this is always one of the drawbacks of any kind of inclined 
windows. 

For purposes of ventilation the sashes may be hinged at the top and 
opened by any convenient means. A simple device is to run a light shaft 
along inside the building and near the bottoms of the sashes, and fix to it 
cast iron arms, in the form of cranks, for each sash. From these arms con- 
necting rods run to the sashes. This shaft may be operated by fixing to it a 
grooved pulley, over which a small rope runs, and reaches down near the 
floor, from which it may be operated. Levers standing in opposite direction 
on this shaft, and having a cord attached to each end, may be used for the 
same purpose. These shafts ought not to be over 50 feet in length, operated 
by one set of ropes. Pieces of shafting 15 or 20 feet long can be easily coupled 
together. The plainest possible construction is sufficient for all practical 
purposes. 

Ribbed glass should be used in these sashes as it prevents the glaring 
effect of direct and unimpeded sunlight, and diffuses a soft and agreeable 
light over the whole area to be lighted. 

In Fig. 18 is shown a longitudinal section, and in Fig. 19 a cross-section, 
of this same style -of roof, but in this case it is constructed principally of wood 
instead of steel. The form of the inclined truss, and the method of securing 
the timbers by bolts is clearly shown. Wall plates of the form shown should 
be used, as well as proper resting plates on the tops of the central posts, or 
columns, so constructed as to not only properly support the truss for holding 
the window frames and sashes, but also to furnish a proper abutment for the 
lower end of the rafter braces. 

The roof timbers should be secured to the walls and to the posts by 
anchor bolts, to prevent the roof from being lifted by high winds. 

In putting on the roof planking for this type of roof different methods 



58 



MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 




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SAW-TOOTH CONSTRUCTION OF ROOFS 



59 




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must be adopted for the steel 
construction from that used for 
wood trusses and roof timbers. 

In the case of the steel 
trusses, the supporting bars are 
shown in solid section in the 
longitudinal section, Fig. 16, and 
to these the planks may be se- 
cured by bolts, or lag screws, if 
steel supports are used, or by 
spikes, if these supports are of 
wood. In either case the planks 
will run in the direction of the 
pitch of the roof. 

If the wood construction is 
used, the rafters will be not over 
10 feet centers, and the planks 
long enough to reach at least two 
spaces, or twenty feet, and are 
spiked directly to the rafters, con- 
sequently they will run at right 
angles to them. The planks 
should be 3 inches thick and 6 
inches wide and be grooved in 
both edges, and have separate 
splines put in to connect them. 

In case of either steel or 
wood construction, the roof 
planks should be covered with 
good rosin-sized roofing paper, 
mopped with hot tar, and upon 
this a heavy quality of roofing 
tin, or some form of the modern 
sheet steel roofing. All sheet 
metal should be painted on the 
under side before it is laid. 

The gutters or valleys of 
these roofs should be the subject 
of careful attention. They need 
not be of sharp pitch, as a quar- 
ter of an inch to the foot will be 



60 MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 

sufficient. Conductor pipes at each valley should carry off the water. 
In the case of the shop shown in perspective in Fig. 20, the valleys on the 
high central portion should incline each way from the center and from each 
side, conductor pipes carrying the water to the valleys in the lower part of the 
building, and from thence it flows to the conductor pipes at the sides. 

Either of the methods above described for constructing the roof will be 
found economical to build and well adapted to the purposes for which they 
are to be used. 



CHAPTER IX 

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF CHIMNEY, OR STACK 

Peculiarities of chimney design. Brick construction. Foundations. The various types of 
chimneys compared. Steel chimneys. The proportions of the chimney. Height of 
chimney. Its dimensions to suit certain boiler capacity. Methods of calculation. 
Limits to the heights of single wall chimneys. Vertical and cross-sections. The outer 
walls. Octagonal versus square forms of construction. Relative numbers of bricks 
used. The chimney base and foundation. Quality of mortar. The central core. 
Care in construction. Form of central flue. The cap. Provisions for reaching the 
top. Lightning rods. The chimney of strength and the chimney of expediency. 

Thus far our methods of construction and the necessary materials for 
them have been such as are encountered daily by the architect and the builder. 
We now come to the erection of the chimney or stack, which has many pecu- 
liarities and restrictions on its design and construction, resulting from its 
narrow foundation, great height, and the necessity of its resisting not only the 
high-wind pressures and great changes in temperature at different seasons, but 
also the great difference of temperature on the inside and on the outside. It 
seems necessary, therefore, to treat this subject of chimney construction in a 
separate chapter wherein we will consider the respective merits of and the 
objections to chimneys of the more common forms and materials. 

Regarding the chimney built of brick, the principal objections would 
appear to be its first cost, which is considerable, and the fact that owing to 
its narrow base and great height very firm and solid foundations must be 
prepared. This, of course, becomes more difficult and expensive where the 
ground is soft and excavations must be made at great depth, or where piles 
have to be driven to build the foundation upon. 

At the present time many sheet iron or steel chimneys are erected, and 
it is the prevailing idea that they are the more economical. About the only 
advantage they seem to possess, however, is that owing to their comparatively 
light weight they may be erected on superstructures upon which a brick 
chimney could not. Then, too, their first cost is much less than for a brick 
chimney of equal capacity. 

Some of their disadvantages are, that they are very liable to rust at the 
seams and rivets, owing to the impossibility of keeping these points properly 
protected from water. Therefore they are comparatively short lived. 

61 



62 MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 

Since the above paragraph was written the author saw one of these 
steel chimneys which had been built by a most reliable firm, erected with a 
great deal of care, painted with the best materials to be had, that in a little 
over a year became a total wreck, owing to the rusting of the material 
around the joints and rivets. A new stack had to be erected. The com- 
bined cost of the two would have built a good and substantial brick 
chimney that would have endured for many years. 

Again, in the effort to protect the metal they must be frequently painted, 
or coated with some of the numerous " cure-all" paints, "warranted to protect 
them perfectly inside and out"; and the use of any protective covering is a 
continual expense for maintenance to which the brick chimney is net subject. 

The conclusion, therefore, must be that, if the life of the chimney is of 
less consideration than its first cost, we would adopt that constructed of 
sheet iron or steel; but if we regard permanency and the ultimate outlay, both 
for construction and maintenance and all the advantages derived, brick is 
evidently the material to be chosen. 

The height of the chimney will depend somewhat upon surrounding hills, 
high buildings, and similar obstructions to the free course of the wind, but 
should never be less than the diameter of the internal flue multiplied by 
twenty. The diameter of the internal flue will depend on the aggregate areas 
of the smoke flues or " up- takes" leading from the boilers, and these neces- 
sarily depend upon the grate surface, allowing about 4.5 square feet per 
horse-power. 

There are many methods of calculating the diameter of chimney flues, 
some of which are very complex and depend upon many assumed conditions 
at each step, which ofttimes have hardly more practical value than guesses. 
Others assume to calculate the volume of gases, the speed of their flow, the 
area of grate openings, etc., all of which might be changed with each sample 
of coal, or according to the condition of the weather. 

Practical engineers will probably favor the following simple method, even 
with its arbitrary assumptions, and will be quite successful in the practical 
application of it as it is the result of much actual experience. The horse- 
power being given — say in this case 470 — and allowing 4.5 square feet of 
grate surface per horse-power, we have 104.4. At 5 pounds of coal per horse- 
power, which is quite liberal, we will burn 2,350 pounds of coal per hour. 
Our chimney is 100 feet high. We divide the pounds of coal burned per 
hour by the square root of the height multiplied by 12 (10 x 12 = 120) and we 
have 19.58 as the area of the chimney flue, in square feet. Divide this by 
.7854 and extract the square root and we have the diameter, slightly less than 
5 feet. 

Having the diameter of flue and height given we may by inverse methods 



DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF CHIMNEY, OR STACK 63 

obtain the horse-power, grate surface, etc. In making these calculations we 
should be sure to get capacity enough; for if the chimney is a little too large 
no harm is done, while if a little too small a serious expense is incurred for a 
supplementary one. 

All chimneys over 75 feet high should be built with a central "core," or 
flue, preferably of circular form, surrounded by an outside casing sufficiently 
strong to properly support the inner core and to resist the pressure of the 
strongest winds. 

The thickness of the walls of both the outer portion and the inner core 
should be sufficient to be very rigid near the ground and gradually thinner as 
the walls rise, the "breaks" being, of course, on the inside of the outer portion 
and the outside of the inner core. These breaks are usually four inches, or 
the width of a brick at each step. 

The "batter," or inclination of the outside face of the main structure 
should be a quarter of an inch per foot. In our case we are supposed to 
require a chimney 100 feet high, with a circular flue 5 feet in diameter. 

In the illustrations, Fig. 21 shows a vertical section through the center 
of the chimney and its foundation. It shows the thickness of walls, special 
form of central flue, retaining caps at the top, and special arrangements for 
increasing the draft. Fig. 22 is an elevation of the exterior, showing its gen- 
eral form and appearance when completed. Fig. 23 shows a horizontal 
section through the octagonal portion on the line A A, Fig. 21. Fig. 24 shows 
a horizontal section through the square base, on the line BB, Fig. 21. Fig. 25 
illustrates, on an enlarged scale, the number of bricks necessary for a course, 
if the square form were to be continued to the top. Fig. 26 shows the economy 
of adopting the octagonal form, as saving material and labor, and offering 
considerably less surface to wind pressure from certain directions. 

In the Figs. 25 and 26 the upper half shows the laying of a "header" 
course and the lower half the laying of a "straight" course. In these two 
sketches it will be seen that in a header course the octagonal form contains 
52 bricks less than the square form; and in a straight course 32 bricks are 
saved. Assuming five courses per foot in height, and that in each foot we 
have one header course, we save by the octagonal form 180 bricks. This, of 
course, is less as we approach the top, but the average saving will be consid- 
erably over 100 bricks per foot, or over 8,000 for the whole work. 

Actual experience shows that the extra labor cost of making the many 
corners is more than balanced by the smaller number of bricks laid in the 
octagonal form than in the square form. The appearance is much enhanced 
and the wind pressure is considerably diminished by getting rid of the projecting 
corners. 

The base of the chimney is of square form, this being more convenient 



6_L 



MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 





Fig. 23. — Horizontal Sec- 
tion through octagonal 
portion on line .4.4, 
Fig. 21. 



[*— 13; -4 




Fig. 24. — Horizontal Sec- 
tion through square 
base on line B B. Fig. 21. 



rJ 




Fig. 22. — Elevation of the 
Completed Chimney. 



Fig. 21. — Vertical Section of Chimney and 
Foundation. 



DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF CHIMNEY, OR STACK 65 



I II I II II 



HEADER COURSE, 312 BRICKS 



STRAIGHT COURSE, 280 BRICKS 



I I I I 



i'i'i'i'i' 



Fig. 25. — Horizontal Section, showing number of Bricks in 
the Square Form, 




Fig. 26. — Horizontal Section, showing number of Bricks in 
the Octagonal Form. 



66 MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 

for the introduction of the smoke flues or ''up- takes" from the boilers, the 
placing of the ash doors and the general appearance. 

The ash door is shown in Fig. 22. The opening should be arched, pref- 
erably of semicircular design, as affording the most strength to sustain the 
great weight of brickwork over it. It should be closed with a sheet iron 
door. The openings for smoke flues should also be strongly arched, similar 
to the ash doorways. From the square portion at the base, the main shaft 
of the chimney is of octagonal form, as indicated in Fig. 24. 

For foundations the earth should be excavated to perfectly hard ground, 
making a pit 28 feet square; that is, twice the depth of the foundation, assuming 
that in consequence of the condition of the ground it is necessary to excavate 
to a depth of 14 feet. In this pit should be a bed, 4 feet thick of large stones 
laid in strong cement mortar. Upon this should be courses about 18 inches 
thick and gradually drawn in at the top to 16 feet square. 

By strong cement mortar we mean that containing two parts cement, one 
part of lime, and about three parts of clean, sharp sand. The amount of 
sand will vary considerably with its fineness, sharpness, and its freedom from 
dirt; the finer the sand the greater the quantity that must be used. 

In erecting the central core and the outward supporting structure great 
care should be used to make all joints of uniform thickness, and to see that 
as the courses are laid on they are frequently leveled. 

"Batter plumbs" should be used for the outside; that is, the board on 
which the plumb line is attached should have the batter or inclination by 
being made narrower at the bottom. For instance, a plumb board 4 feet 
long should be 6 inches wide at the top and 4 inches at the bottom (the 
batter being equal on both edges). 

Another matter that must be scrupulously attended to is that of properly 
supporting the inner core. It will not do to lay bricks from wall to wall so as 
to tie them together, as the expansion and contraction of the inner core would 
soon ruin the structure. 

The support is given by building up into the outer wall inwardly pro- 
jecting bricks reaching half way across the space, and against these, others 
projecting outwardly from the inner core. These should be placed on all 
eight sides, in the same course, and at intervals of not over eight feet through 
the entire height. 

The form and thickness of walls and the heights of the "breaks" are 
shown in Fig. 21. The central flue is formed after the model of the well- 
known student lamp and forms a very effective combustion chamber for 
escaping smoke. It is the form adopted by a prominent engineer who built 
a large number of chimnevs of this design which have been in successful use 
for many years. 



DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF CHIMNEY, OR STACK 67 

The smoke flues enter the chimney below the constricted portion of the 
inner llue. The top caps are of cast iron and may be made in sections and 
bolted together, as well for convenience in erecting as for economy of pattern 
making. 

That on the inner core terminates 7 feet 2 inches below the top of the 
main cap. At four sides of the outer structure are openings, as shown in 
Fig. 21, the bottom of each opening being on a level with the top of the inner 
cap. By this means the current of air which always rises along any high wall 
is taken advantage of, as it passes up the side of the chimney, into these open- 
ings, and out the top of the chimney, and creates a partial vacuum over the 
top of the central flue, thus considerably increasing the draft. 

Means should be provided for reaching the top of the chimney, as the 
iron caps will need painting, or lightning rods may have to be placed or re- 
paired. Iron ladders up the side may be fastened to the wall, or a permanent 
block may be attached to the main cap and provided with a wire rope, for 
this purpose. 

As a matter of safety from lightning it is well to provide lightning con- 
ductors. A round copper rod of not less than f-inch diameter, or one of 
equal area of cross-section, may be run up outside of the chimney, through 
heavy glass insulators, and terminate four feet above the main cap in four 
points, iVinch diameter or equivalent area. The lower end of the rod 
should go into moist earth and be attached to a cast iron plate 30 inches 
square and f-inch thick. 

It is often the case that chimneys are erected that are much higher in 
proportion to their width than the example here shown, and in situations 
where the structure is well protected from the pressure of the wind, this 
may be safely done. But when erected in an exposed situation it will be 
well to consider, as of first importance, the factor of stability. 

It will not be proper or fair, however, to confound the appearance of a 
chimney built in the substantial form herein described, with some of the 
smaller and more slender structures sometimes seen, which have no central 
core, either because their moderate height does not render it necessary, because 
the temperature of the gases is not so high as to endanger-a chimney of single 
walls, or from considerations of economy. 

The chimney here shown is in every way substantial and reliable, and 
from the dimensions and proportions given, chimneys of any required capacity, 
or to suit any condition of surroundings, may be successfully designed and 
constructed. 






CHAPTER X 

construct: jx ; t re rxr '. -.1:0x5 

The "r:":Tr ':ei :":: ?, : :.z:i^:::". C;re neresiiry in ::s prerar?.:::". Scur-dir.::. The 
various types of foundation. Timber support for heavy buildings on alluvial soiL 
Timber support for foundations. Piling support for foundations. Timber and concrete 
supports for foundations. Laying stone foundations. Mortar for foundation work. 
Foundations for machinery in general. Engine foundations. Planer foundation. 
Special foundation for testing lathes or other machines. Drop hammer foundations. 
Steam hammer foundations. Timber foundation for heavy machines on soft ground. 
Example in experience. 



It is but quoting an old maxim to say that if we are to build a good house 
we must have a good foundation to build it on. And we may just as perti- 
nently say that if we are to build a good and substantial foundation, we must 
have something solid to lay it upon. 

Otherwise we shall be like the man who built his house upon the sands. 
The diversity of the ground, at the surface and down through the stratifications 
of material of various densities and strengths, from the solid nature of rock 
to the almost fluid condition of alluvial soil, must be considered. Each of 
these conditions requires special treatment according to its nature. 

To properly secure a firm bed for the foundation of a building, we must 
either excavate down to firm and solid ground, technically called "hard pan," 
or we must by artificial means produce a substantial surface upon which to 
begin the masonry. It is quite impossible for the architect, the mason or the 
contracting builder to tell us by a superficial examination of the ground how 
deep we must go to reach solid ground, or "hard pan." 

To some extent this may be ascertained by " sounding" ; that is, by making 
small excavations at various points, to obtain the necessary information upon 
which to determine not only the depth to which the foundation must extend, 
but whether the nature of the ground renders such artificial support as piles 
::e:essrry. 

It may be found that at some points in the foundation of extensive build- 
ings we need excavate only a few feet, while at others, very deeply; and still 
at other points the ground may be of such a yielding nature that piles must 

:5 







CONSTRUCTION OF FOUNDATIONS 



69 



be driven. Or we may find that the use of piles would be a much more 
economical method than very deep masonry. 

But whatever the depth we may be obliged to go to, or the process by 
which we produce our bed for the foundation, all parts of it must be, not only 
firm and practically unyielding, but level. Hence, when we excavate to vary- 
ing depths the earth must be " benched out," as it is called, as shown in Fig. 31. 

Great care should be taken to have all parts of the bottom of the excava- 
tion of as equal density and resisting power as possible, that they may equally 
support the great weight of the wall to be built. This condition becomes all 
the more important as the walls of the building are higher and the consequent 
weights and strains correspondingly increased. 

It is, of course, true that no ground can be found so absolutely solid as 
not to yield somewhat when the weight of the building is put upon it, and 
therefore we must not expect to wholly prevent a certain amount of settling; 
but we should use all possible care to have this settling as equal as possible 
over the whole area of the foundation. 

Having ascertained the nature of the ground as far as possible, we may 
determine the kind or kinds of foundation necessary. If the ground is so 
soft and yielding that excavation to solid earth will have to be very deep, 
making a stone foundation excessively expensive, piles should be driven as 
deep down as possible — say two feet apart from center to center — and cut 
off level at the top, and be down low enough to remain always wet. 





27. — Timber Support for 
Foundation Wall. 



Fig. 28. — Piling and 
Timber Support for 
Foundation Wall. 

Upon these piles timbers of sufficient size are placed, being laid across 
each row of piles; then upon these another course of timbers, at right angles 
to the first. These may be laid close together or two or three inches apart, 
the size of the timbers being determined by the weight of the wall they are to 
support. For instance, for the walls of the machine shop proposed in these 
articles, the timbers may be 10 x 12 inches laid on edge. . 

Fig. 27 gives a plan view of this method and Fig. 28 shows a cross-section 



7o 



MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 



of the same. It is not always necessary to arrange the piles in three lines, 
with those in the center row in line with those of the two outer rows, as shown. 
Where the weight of the superstructure is not excessive it is often preferable 
to begin by setting three piles in a row, then two so they will come opposite 
the intervals of the first row ; then the next row of three in line with the first ; 
then another row of two piles and so on. 

Where there is considerable depth from the top of the piles without side 
support it is necessary to drive "sheet piling." Set planks three inches thick, 
or thicker, with their edges close together so as to enclose the work on both 
sides, and afterward fill in the spaces between these planks and the solid earth 
with tightly rammed gravel, and if necessary fill the spaces between the piles 
with stones or concrete. This will give them quite sufficient support to make 
a very firm foundation bed and prevent any lateral movement which might 
result from the bending of the piles. 

Timber should not be used under a foundation unless it is in a position 
to be kept continuously wet by the surrounding soil, for the reason that if 
always wet enough to exclude the air it will endure for a very long time, but 
if so situated as to be sometimes wet and again dry, it will soon decay. 

Therefore, if the use of timber, as above described, is not feasible we must 
use stone and so arrange the piles, regarding the distances from center to 
center, as to allow the use of such stones as are available, cutting off the tops 
of the piles below the water line if possible, or at least so low as to have them 
always wet. This arrangement is shown in Fig. 29. 








Fig. 29. — Piling and 
Stone Support for 
Foundation Wall. 



CONCRETE! 



CONCRETE . 




Fig. 30. — Timber and Concrete 
Support for Foundation Wall. 



Sometimes fairly solid earth may be reached within a reasonable depth, 
but it requires digging quite a considerable depth beyond this before reach- 
ing really solid ground or "hard pan." In such a case it may be advisable 
to lay down, first, a course of concrete four to six inches thick, then a layer 
of timber and another course of concrete, which will furnish an excellent 
bed for the foundation. 



CONSTRUCTION OF FOUNDATIONS 



7i 



The second course of timber may be replaced by a course of 3-inch planks 
if the wall is not a very heavy one. Circumstances might also warrant three 
courses of timber. The width of the timber work should be from two. to 
three times the thickness of the wall. Fig. 30 shows such an arrangement. 

A prominent public building has stood for many years on very soft and 
yielding alluvial soil, upon which such a foundation as that described above 
was laid over the entire area to be covered by the structure, and many feet 
deep. Then the stone foundation proper was built upon it, after which the 
very heavy and massive stone building was erected. 

Where excavations vary in depth at different points of the same wall the 
ground should be cut out in steps, or "benches," so that the bed whereon the 
foundation is built may be perfectly level. The lower steps should be built 
in with as large stones as possible and brought up to the level of the more 
shallow parts. It will be readily appreciated that the larger stones require 
a smaller number of cement joints and will settle less, and consequently are 
less liable to disturb the work by yielding unequally. See Fig. 31. In all 
cases the excavation should be made below the reach of frost. 




Fig. 31. — Benching out Ground for Foundation. 

In building up a foundation of stones they should be laid with as near 
horizontal joints as possible so as to prevent the lateral movement of the stones 
by the weight put upon them. They should also be laid as far as possible in 
courses, and each course leveled off before commencing the next, the thickness 
of the courses necessarily depending on the thickness of the largest stones. 
These points are all the more important at corners, where tendencies to dis- 
integrate are the most liable. 

The foundation is laid consid- 
erably wider at the base than at 
the top, either in a wall gradually 
decreasing in thickness (that is, tech- 
nically, with a " batter" of so much 
per foot, as in Fig. 32) or more 
commonly by a wide footing of one 
or more courses of larger stones. 
Above that it is built with regular 
vertical faces as shown in Fig. 33. 

However the foundation wall may be built, the space between it and the 





Fig. 32. — Battered 
Foundation Wall. 



Fig. 33. — Straight 
Foundation Wall. 



72 MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 

sides of the excavation should be filled in, either by tightly rammed earth or 
gravel or better still by ''puddling." that is. by flooding the space with water, 
throwing in the earth or gravel and allowing it to settle, ramming onlv from 
six inches to a foot of the top. The foundation of stone should be carried up 
above the level of the ground, from one to two feet according to circumstances. 
If the main floor of a building is to be raised several feet above the ground 
level, it is usual to build the foundation high enough to rest the floor timbers 
upon it, filling in the spaces between them with brick and leveling up ready 
for the brick wall. 

The importance of using strong mortar in foundation work seems to 
demand that particular attention be paid to the proportions of its ingredients 
which will make the best compound of its kind. Use two parts of Portland 
cement, one part of slaked lime, and about three parts of clean, sharp sand. 

The quantity of sand must be varied according to its fineness, sharpness, 
and freedom from dirt. A larger quantity of fine sand will be needed than 
of coarse. Some sand has a more rounded grain instead of the sharp angles 
of the better quality. Of such sand more must also be used. 

Foundations are generally laid in mortar having a greater or lesser pro- 
portion of cement. They should also be stronger in this respect for the lower 
or underground courses than for the upper ones so as to better resist the action 
of water. In fact much of a foundation is frequently laid in mortar composed 
of onlv cement and sand, omitting lime altogether. 

Thus far only the foundations for buildings have been considered. These 
have for their principal object to sustain the weights of the superstructure 
erected upon them. 

In the case of the foundations for machinery it is quite different. Here 
not only the weight must be sustained but the question is complicated by the 
jars, strains, and shocks due to the operation of the machines: and this must 
also be considered. These varv largely in different cases, as for instance, the 
steady revolutions of a large lathe, the reciprocating motion of an engine, and 
the vertical concussions of the steam hammer or drop press. 

Foundations for engines, large lathes, planers, boring mills and so on, 
are built in a manner somewhat similar to that for the foundation of a building, 
except that they are usually much broader at the base, conforming in a general 
way to that shown in end elevation in Fig. 34 and a portion of the side elevation 
in Fig. ss- 

Only a good quality of hard bricks should be used, and the entire work 
should be laid in strong cement mortar. 

The holding-down bolts, when it is necessary to use such fastenings, are 
made Ions: enough to reach well down in the foundation, if not entirelv through 
it, and are provided with large washers or plates at their lower ends. These 



CONSTRUCTION OF FOUNDATIONS 



73 



arc put in place as the foundation is built up and their top ends are held in 
position by a templet made of boards in the form of a frame, and representing 
the base of the machine. 

In a large foundation of this character, blocks of dressed stone should be 
worked into the finishing courses of bricks so as to bring them level with the 
top. These are usually placed crosswise, one at each end ; and others at such 
points as to furnish firm support for the cylinder, crank shaft, pillow block, 
and guides of an engine; for the headstock of a lathe, and for suitable points 
along the length of the bed; under the uprights or housings of planers and at 
each pair of legs, or at proper intervals where the entire bed rests on founda- 
tions without the use of legs. 





Fig. 34. — End Elevation of Engine 
Foundation. 



Fig. 35. — Partial Side Elevation of Engine 
Foundation. 



Usually, in the case of a planer, and often of a large lathe, the foundation 
is composed of a series of piers built up separately at the points to be supported, 
each pier being capped by a stone of sufficient size to cover it. 

In laying out the foundation for a planer of, say, 36 x 36 inches or 
larger, a pit should be provided under the center; that is, from a point one 
to two feet back of the face of the uprights to a point three to five feet in 
front of the uprights, and five to six feet deep. It should be broad enough 
for the building of narrow steps leading down into it. 

This pit will receive a great portion of the 
chips produced, and in it, resting on large and 
firmly set stones, should be two cast iron col- 
umns, with strong jack screws tapped into their 
tops, and coming up into contact with the 
under side of the bed at a point near the face 
of the uprights. Thus arranged, they are very 
useful in maintaining the proper alignment of 
the planer. 

A foundation now in use, upon which large lathes are erected and tested, 
was built as shown in Fig. 36. Solid ground was found about five feet below 




JG5EE 



iif .*.(** 



-#^ ..vv, "•-< -* ... -sA ■» -SX J 



Fig. 36. — Special Pier for a Machine 
Testing Foundation. 



74 MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 

the floor level, and a course of concrete was first laid, then three courses of 
stones, and upon these hard bricks, cement being used throughout. 

Upon the top of each pier a cast iron plate i§ inches thick was placed. 
This plate had downwardly projecting flanges all around it, deep enough to 
cover three courses of bricks. In the top of these plates was a hole six inches 
in diameter. 

When the brickwork was finished these plates were put in place and 
leveled up so as to leave about half an inch space between the plate and the 
top of the bricks. Around the lower edges of the flanges the space was care- 
fully closed with cement. Then cement was mixed thin enough to flow easily, 
and was poured into the hole at the top until the entire space at the top and 
sides was completely filled, and the whole was allowed to "set." 

The tops of the plates were about J inch above the top of the floor, which 
was built up closely around them. Very heavy lathes are moved on and off 
these piers almost daily for several years without injury, and the piers have 
not settled to any appreciable extent, or so as to cause any difficulty in level- 
ing up machines to be tested. 

In placing high-speed engines or planers, which are liable to lateral 
shocks, it may be advisable to provide cast iron plates as described above, 
with the downwardly projecting flanges to cover the upper courses of brick- 
work, and also with upwardly projecting flanges enclosing sufficient space 
for the base, cabinets or legs, as the case may be. After leveling up the 
machine with steel wedges, say a \ to a | inch, the space is filled with melted 
lead or brimstone, which when cool will form a very secure, serviceable, and 
durable arrangement. 

Foundations for machines subject to considerable vertical shocks, such 
as steam hammers, drop presses, and the like, must be treated in an entirely 
different manner. From the nature of the work a solid foundation of stone 
and brick is not usually considered as best adapted to the conditions. 

Such a foundation, unless formed of one solid block of stone, would 
soon be spoiled by cracks and disintegration from the shocks, and serious 
consequences to the machine might ensue, the parts broken, for instance, 
or the dies ruined. For such cases many experienced men prefer founda- 
tions that may be elastic enough to relieve the machines somewhat of the 
sudden strains and shocks of heavy and oft-repeated blows. In these cases 
the foundations are composed of timbers. 

There are two common types of these foundations. The first one, for 
small or medium sizes of drop presses or hammers, are built with tim- 
bers set on end and firmly bolted together in sufficient numbers to form 
a foundation of the required size, as shown in Fig. 37, the bolts going 
entirely through the mass. Timbers 10 x 10 inches or 12 x 12 inches are 



CONSTRUCTION OF FOUNDATIONS 



75 



a convenient size, and hard pine is found by experience to be best adapted 
to the work. 

The excavation is first made to solid ground, then a foot or so of hard 
gravel is tightly rammed down in the bottom, to form the bed. The timbers 
are cut of a proper length to reach the surface, but should not be less than 
5 feet long. They are bolted together, lowered into place, and leveled up, 
and good hard gravel is tightly rammed in around 
the timbers, filling the space between them and the 
sides of the excavation. 

This form of foundation is adapted for drop 
presses and small hammers in which the anvil is 
a part of the machine itself. In case a hammer 
is of such size as to have the anvil detached 
from the main frame, the latter is supported 
upon a stone foundation, or on one partly of 
stone and partly of brick (built in two piers for a 
double hammer), as shown in cross-section in 
Fig. 38 and in side elevation in Fig. 39. The 
foundation for the anvil is built of timbers laid horizontally, the base being 
spread over as large an area as practicable, in order to resist the force of the 
blows of the hammer. 

In a double hammer the anvil foundation must be restricted in width, 
but may be extended in length at the base so as to present the form shown in 
the engraving. 




Fig. 37. — Drop Hammer 
Foundation. 



^L-,4^ 



c 



- A \ J ^ "X-A^ . j 






-, "_.^»7 



£3 



-vsV . -'M ■ *\ »< 






,N\\ '<* ^ N ■*{ 




A\\'' A \ 



Fig. 38. — Cross Section of Steam Hammer Foundation. 



The size of the foundation is necessarily proportioned to the size of the 
hammer, but approximately as follows: Supposing the width between the 
upright parts of the main frame to be 6 feet, the width of the timber work 
will be about 4 feet, the length on top 8 feet and at the base 1 2 feet — as- 
suming the necessary depth to be 4 feet. If solid ground is not found at this 



- 



MACHIXE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 



:. l^yer :: : :::;:t:7 :v.;. 
rezner.: :r.:r:i: 
should be bolted togi 
: :::5:i:.: -:.: ; -: c :•: _:= 
?:muI:: ';- bi'.ztz : : jv: 
::;.::::- n;-: n :: i~\: 
>: ■::-. i:s:^:rrra:e :::e 
work should be tighd 
may be from 6 x 6 in 
but they arc usually i< 
where decay is feared 



- zrsve. ~e_ ri "r: :::. T:.t rlzibers 
ners :r ft :'.:..: t.y r: ./. : :~l^i: :■: 

Tred. The top corners of the timbers 

7:;e : i; :"" : _::_ ; ir. : ±n: -:; : .__- 
:::-:.. 2.5 :r_t ::zs:.ir.: : r:\iss: :~5 ~:"7: 




On one occasion, in soft and ve: 
Tre-ir::: ~ii 5;.-;-; :r:r£ "::t ;. : :u:;ii::::: 
pfles being driven at 2 feet centers o\ 
and length of the base. Upon thes 
manner described, up to within six I 
gradually drawn in to four feet larger 
which was quite high in propoiticr- 
work stone laid in cement m rtai wa 
and the machine erected upon it T 



yizii mi 
zi= rlziier 

"-- : : 



CHAPTER XI 

THE CONSTRUCTION OF FLOORS 

Earth and concrete floors. Vertical section. Stone and concrete floors. Vertical section. 
Paving. Simple steel supporting beams. All wood construction. How the grain of 
the wood should run, in planks. The wrong way to cut up the log. The right method. 
Quartering the log. The machine shop floor. Construction of the gallery floors. 
Wood joist construction. Steel construction. Floor planks. The floor that failed. 
Ventilation of wood floors. Another failure. The kind of wood to use. The foundry 
floor. Foundry pits. The forge shop floor. The boiler room floor. Kind of bricks 
for floor paving. Metallic floors. Engine room floor. Carpenter shop floor. The 
cupola platform, or charging floor. Wash room and water-closet floors. The office 
floors. Pattern storage floor. Kind of lumber to use. A floor of wood paving. 

In the construction of modern manufacturing buildings there are many 
methods of constructing a floor, varying all the way from the almost primitive 
"dirt floor" of the forge shop to the close-jointed smoothly-finished hard wood 
floor of the modern watch factory. 

Those which principally concern us in these articles, however, are such 
as are necessary in the modern machine shop, forge shop, iron foundry, etc., 
and these we may properly divide into six classes, viz. : 

First, those composed exclusively of earth, as the floor of the forge shop. 

Second, those composed of earth and concrete, like the floor of an iron 
foundry, as shown in vertical section in Fig. 40. 







Fig. 40. — Vertical Section Earth and Concrete Floor. 



Third, those of stone and concrete, as the main or ground floor of a 
machine shop designed for constructing and erecting heavy machinery, shown 
in Fig. 41. 

Fourth, those composed of stone or bricks, as required for engine and 
boiler rooms, etc., shown in plan in Figs. 42 and 43. 

77 



78 



MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 







Fig. 41. — Vertical Section Stone and Concrete Floor. 





I ** 










' 










r 














Fig. 42. — -flag Stone Floor. 



Fig. 43. — Brick Paving. 



Fifth, those composed of wood, supported by iron or steel beams, as 
illustrated in vertical section in Fig. 44 and Fig 45. 




Fig. 44. — Simple Steel I-beam Support. 




Fig. 45. — Floor Supported by Built-up Steel Beam. 

Sixth, those composed entirely of wood, as shown in Fig. 46. 

There are also certain conditions which will, in a great measure, deter- 
mine the kind of floor to be adopted, as, for instance, the situation, the kind 
of work to be done and the weights which the floor will have to support. 

As to materials, there are those of each kind which it might be perfectly 



THE CONSTRUCTION OF FLOORS 



79 



proper to use in other portions of the work of construction, but which would 
be objectionable in a floor. 

Stone should be of such nature and quality as to remain firm and hard, 
with no disposition to crumble away. Hence granite is the best, although 
there are other kinds which are nearly as good for certain purposes, and much 
cheaper. Generally we use such as can be obtained near the work so as to 
avoid the cost of transportation. 




Fig. 46. — Floor with Wooden Beams. 

For paving, a hard, smooth- surfaced stone is needed. Sandstone wears 
away easily, and therefore the harder varieties are preferable. Slate makes 
a very smooth-wearing and satisfactory floor. Granite is not usually employed 
for this purpose owing to the expense of obtaining it and the cost of cutting. 

Paving bricks should be hard-burned and of a quality to insure toughness, 
so that they may not be easily broken by accident. Many brick companies, 
in different parts of the country, now manufacture bricks for street paving 
which possess as good wearing qualities as most kinds of stone. 

Gravel should be free from soil, although a moderate quantity of sharp 
sand is not objectionable. When earth is used in making a floor a certain 
amount of clay should be added, to give an adhesive quality to the mass. 

Sand should in all cases be clean and sharp, free from soils and alluvial 
earth, and not too fine. 

Lumber should be so cut at the mill that the grain of the wood shall run 
as nearly as possible at right angles to the face of the board or plank, as shown 
in Fig. 47, rather than with the grain running in a direction nearly parallel 
with the face, as in Fig. 48. 





Fig. 47. — Plank properly cut 
from the Log. 






Fig. 48. — Plank improperly cut 
from the Log. 



The reason for this is that the surface of the planks shown in Fig. 48 will 



8o 



MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 



wear smoothly even under very hard usage, while in the other case it will 
easily splinter up and present a very unsightly appearance, and will not last 
more than half as long as when properly cut from the log. 

Then, too, while the plank shown in Fig. 47 will warp very little, if any, 
that in Fig. 48 has a great tendency to warp, owing to the direction of the 
grain, and to the fact that the sap or outer portion of a log, being the newer 
growth, is less dense and consequently will contract more in the process of 
seasoning. 

Therefore the tendency is to distort the plank to the form shown by 
dotted lines in Fig. 48. 

Logs are usually cut up at the mill on the lines shown in Fig. 49. The 
boards taken off at the right and left, called "sidings," are trimmed on their 
edges separately and sold at a reduced rate, while the remaining center portion 
of the log is cut into stock boards, or planks of regular width and thickness. 






Fig. 40. Fig. 50. 

The Wrong and the Right Way to cut a Log into Boards. 



Fig. 51. 
Quartering the Log. 



To preserve the direction of the grain with relation to the faces of the 
boards or planks, the form of cutting shown in Fig. 50 would be advisable, 
but not as economical. This latter method is on the principle of quartering, 
as referred to in the furniture makers' term of "quartered oak," for instance. 

This form of cutting is shown in Fig. 51. It gives comparatively narrow 
boards, is expensive, and generally used for expensive woods, and for expensive 
work, as for fine furniture. 

The main or ground floor of the machine shop being intended to sustain 
moderately heavy weights, both of machines and materials — as well as the 
hard usage in moving them from place to place, and the shocks of heavy 
work — is now usually made of concrete, and laid as shown in Fig. 41. 

In some cases those portions of floor included in the side wings are con- 
structed of wood. This form is objectionable on account of the obstruction 
formed by the joining of the concrete floor and the planks; for at this point 
the former is apt to be cracked and broken, and the latter dented, split, and 
defaced. 



THE CONSTRUCTION OF FLOORS 81 

This is particularly so if the planks arc a trillc higher than the concrete, 
as is likely to be the case when newly laid down. Then, too, where such a 
floor is of wood it is necessary to excavate a foot or so below the floor timbers, 
to provide an air space for preventing the decay of the materials. 

To lay a concrete floor for this purpose the earth should be excavated to 
the depth of from iS to 24 inches, according to the weights which the floor 
is to carry. 

For ordinary purposes of machine shop work 22 inches is desirable and 
sufficient. If the ground is sufficiently firm at this level, no further prepara- 
tion need be made. If soft and yielding, the excavation should be carried 
down to solid ground, and then filled up with solid earth, or still better with 
gravel, the excavation being flooded with water and the filling material thor- 
oughly puddled as it is put in. 

On top of this bed should be placed a layer of coarsely broken stone, 
from 8 to 12 inches deep; and upon this a layer of crushed stones, none of 
which should exceed 2 inches in dimension. This layer should be from 4 to 6 
inches thick. On this is spread a layer 2 to 4 inches thick of concrete com- 
posed of one part Portland cement, two parts clean, sharp sand, two parts 
clean gravel, and three parts fine crushed stone — all taken by measure, 
and not by weight. 

These ingredients should be mixed rather wet so as to settle well down 
into the spaces between the stones of the previous course. The concrete 
should be rammed hard and made perfectly level. 

Then comes a coating of from \ to 1 inch thick, consisting of a mixture 
of one part Portland cement and two parts clean, sharp sand, which should 
be laid before the former course is dry, in order that the two courses may firmly 
unite. This last course is laid quite wet, to facilitate " floating" — that is, 
the leveling off and smoothing. 

Sometimes the intermediate course of concrete work is made up of shingle 
(coarse gravel, stones, or pebbles), mixed with hot coal tar or Portland cement; 
but this has the objection that, whatever be the medium used for cementing 
the mass, it will not adhere to the rounded surfaces of the pebbles as effectively 
as it does to the more porous surfaces of crushed stone. 

Therefore, where subjected to hard usage, this shingle is more likely to 
disintegrate and break up than where crushed stone is used. 

The gallery floors of the machine shop are supported on built-up girders 
20 inches deep, placed at each of the columns dividing the wings from the 
central part of the building. Carried upon angle bars, riveted to the girders 
at a proper height, are the ends of 3 x 16-inch floor joists, placed 20 inches 
from center to center, their upper edges coming 2 J inches above the top of 
the girders, which space is occupied by a spiking piece. On these joists is 



CHE^E SHOP CONSTRUCTION 



e £:«:r :■: ;- :: : zzez TzzTe ;.Tz:T :z i«:zh 5:ie:5 n: zze: ize-i ~*ez 
: : ::;: ;.z:: rr:-:ve 

This construction is shown in vertical section in Fig The gilders 

bene shown may r of course T be solid I-beams T with angfle bars riveted on them 
for supporting the ends of the joists 

""..::. ; '. .:.-.:.: ; : zeer . :: .: z zzi" :e s^ztjj :t^:zzz-i :: :z eezzzz: ::" 

ight to sostain,, the fonn shown in Fig is proper. In this case an 

I-:ezz: ii zee:: v.; :: :: :~ :::. zez5 ::•:: zze zze ezee :: zze Tieei re-5e eeez 
the lower flange of the beam. They should be of such depth as to project a 
ezzeie :: zzelees e:«:~ze zee ::z :: :eee ieazz :_5 5ze~zz :: erzzie :. szzee ::: 
a spiking piece. 

In either case the ends of the joists should be beveled as shown,, so that 
thev may drop out clear in case of nre T without displacing or warping the 
I-beam s 

" :od joists may be iiizezeei ~;ze eTezeezr: ::' Ezeezj :z:ze zze z :: 
zizre ::zi;eezzz:z zeez zzee ::=: 

In this case I-beams of proper strength are laid upon the girders, or with 
their en 3 s : e seing upon the lower flanges thereof — say 4 to 8 feet from center 
:: :ez_:er — izei ze-:z zeeze eze Tie eTne-.i ezei zzezizez z:e: __2iL£i zr:zz 
s 5 inches to 5 x 8 inches, according to the distance between supports and 
the load to be sustained. These are bolted to the upper flange of the I-beam. 
T-iii irzezzrezzez: is 5z;~^zz iz FT ":. 




L 



Fas. 52. — Floor Su4p| H UBte d Entir c Sted. Be i ..:.. 

Tit verrTT z::e :«::uz:e-i z~ zzes.e zeezz:<ii :: : ::z:r.: zzTz 'zerT'5 
: ;zi;iezT:T 15 ie 5z:~zz zz :ze ezzzezTeze ezi zzzi: :e ziTez ::::: ee:zzz: 
in designing the building. 

Where z z iesTez :: reee ::: T :- 17 ^:oiez iezrzi zee Trzz ?h:~~ 
T FT _: ii eizee: Tir TzzezeTze :: :he iezzee zzee: :«e z.:zezzz :: :_::; 
the load, taking into consideration also the distance between supports. - 
en is :: :he iezzze :e5zTz T :he ':z:z ~e.'i zzzT ie ■;:-::. 1 zezzer : zzree 
:: irTze ;z T:~zz eze :he rzT :: :he zee." ":■:-• zTz :f eze 5a zze 1.5 i: zeee 
ie ::zze:z:z ~zTz ez Tez :::i; :: Tiezze -: zez: T :zee .: zze ::.: :ezzz 
~zF :T'i free.v ;z: :: zee '~:T '"z::z :z;zzzze ::. 



THE CONSTRUCTION OF FLOORS 8 3 

Floor joists arc laid upon the beams in the usual manner and spiked to 
them. Wooden floor joists should be braced by a " bridging" of say 2x3 inch 
scantling, as shown, placed at intervals of from 6 to 8 feet, according to the 
dimensions of the joists and the weights they have to support. 

In using floor planks of 3 inches or over in thickness it will be found more 
economical to groove both edges of the planks and insert a separate piece as 
a tongue, than to cut a groove in one edge and a tongue in the other. 

The selection of proper lumber for floors has already been referred to. 
It is often profitable to consider those things that have failed since it has been 
well said that "we learn as much by one failure as by two successes." And 
the failures in shop floors are prolific sources of much annoyance and 
expense. 

A certain machine shop floor w T as laid upon round chestnut timbers, 
flattened on top and bedded in gravel laid over "made land," that is, loosely 
filled in with refuse matter of any sort easy to obtain. The floor proper was 
of 2-inch spruce planks. 

The result was that within a year the chestnut timbers and the under 
side of the planks began to decay, and since that time about one half of the 
timbers and nearly all the floor planks have been replaced each year, the 
patching-up process going on at intervals, and the constant result being an 
unsightly as well as expensive and annoying affair. 

Within a hundred feet of this floor was another of 2-inch planks laid on 
3x12 inch joists, supported on 12 x 12 inch timbers resting on piers, raising 
the floor about two feet above the ground. 

Twelve years after this was laid some planks were removed to put in a 
machine foundation, and the joists and timbers were found looking nearly as 
fresh and new as when they came from the lumber yard. 

Their elevation above the ground and the ventilation of this space by 
small gratings in the side w T alls were evidently the cause of their preservation. 
These cast iron gratings, say 10 x 18 inches, should be inserted at least every 
fifty feet in the walls of buildings whose ground floors are of wood, and at least 
a foot of ventilating space should be left between the ground and the floor. 



Fig. 53. — A Floor as Originally Laid. 

Another example, equally instructive, was a second floor of a machine 
shop. It was of 2 J x 6 inch spruce planks, properly supported. They were 
grooved on each edge f-inch wide and strips were inserted as shown in Fig. 53. 

The builders evidently thought that planks 2§ x 6 inches, with inserted 
tongues, would make a good and substantial floor. And so they would have, 



84 MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 

but the unfortunate selection of the planks included many with the grain 
running in the wrong direction, which caused much warping and distortion. 

Fig. 54 is from a sketch taken at the head of a stairway, careful atten- 
tion having been given to the direction of the grain and the distorted form of 
the planks. It is, perhaps, needless to say that the tongues were split, and 
in some cases the planks also. 




Fig. 54. — The Floor as Warped out of Shape. 

Formerly the timbers most used in ordinary construction were of spruce. 
While this wood is well adapted for floor planks, it has very serious objections 
when used as supporting timbers. There is great liability to warp, twist, and 
crack as the seasoning process goes on, while its strength is not as great as 
some other easily obtained woods. 

For instance, hard pine is superior in this respect, while it is about 35 per 
cent stronger than spruce, and its usual cost is only about 20 per cent greater. 

The foundry floor is subjected to a very considerable weight, both in 
molding sand and in the castings produced, but the rough usage and shocks 
which the machine shop floor is called upon to withstand are not met with 
here. Consequently there is no need of such an expensive preparation. 

The ground is prepared in the same manner as for the machine shop 
floor, except that it is only 12 inches below the floor line. This space is first 
covered with a 4-inch layer of crushed stone, over which is poured a thin 
mixture of one part Portland cement and two parts sand, mixed rather wet. 

Then a concrete is made of the same mixture and finely crushed stone, 
and laid to a depth of about 3 inches. On top of this is spread a flowing coat 
of the cement and sand mixture from J to f-inch thick, which is properly 
leveled off. All this having thoroughly set, the remaining portion of about 
4 inches is made up of molding sand. 

Pits are dug in the central portion of the foundry floor, of such number, 
area, and depth as the contemplated work renders necessary. The bottom is 
covered with 6 inches of concrete and laid with two courses of hard bricks. 
The side walls of the pits are 8 inches thick and are built of hard bricks, all 
laid in cement mortar. 

The top of the wall is level with the final cement coat of the floor. II 
castings of ten tons or over in weight and with comparatively small bases are 
to be made in one of these pits it will be necessary to put down a more sub- 
stantial bottom. 

Excavation should be made to solid ground, or "hard pan," and large 
stones laid in cement mortar built to within about a foot of what is to be the 



THE CONSTRUCTION OF FLOORS 85 

bottom of the pit. Then proceed as above for making ready for the side walls. 
Care should be exercised in ramming or puddling, or both, to completely 
fill in around the side walls. 

The floor of the forge shop is a still more simple matter than that of the 
foundry. The ground is prepared as before, and leveled off a foot below 
where the top of the floor is to be. This space is filled in with clean gravel 
mixed with clay, in the proportion of three parts of the former to one of the 
latter, laid down wet and thoroughly rammed dowm with a broad-faced 
rammer. 

Sharp sand, or the fine cinders from forges, are sifted over this to prevent 
the surface from becoming muddy wdien accidentally wet. In the case of a 
forge shop, concrete is hardly advisable, being liable to be broken up by the 
heavy shocks from hammers and the rough usage to which it would be sub- 
jected. 

Of course it might be made thick enough to endure these conditions, but 
would be quite expensive and would answer the purpose no better than a 
hard-rammed floor of earth, as above described. 

For the floor of the boiler room, flag-stones or hard-burned bricks may 
be used, wdiichever is found most convenient. If stones are used they should 
be cut to a certain width, in one direction at least, in order that they may be 
laid in courses so as to "break joints," as shown in Fig. 42. They should be 
from 1 J to 2 J inches thick. 

Supposing the ground to be sufficiently solid for the purpose, it is prepared 
by leveling, the same as heretofore described, and at least 4 inches plus the 
thickness of the stones below where the top of the floor is to be. Sharp sand 
should be filled in 4 inches deep, and the stones laid upon this, the sand being 
rammed closely under each course as laid. 

When completed, dry sand to the depth of \ inch is spread over the whole 
and swept back and forth to force as much as possible down through the 
joints. This is the cheaper and more simple method. 

If it is desired to make a more substantial pavement, the earth should be 
leveled off at such a height that only an inch space is left between it and the 
stones, and an inch course of a mixture of one part Portland cement and two 
parts of sharp sand worked up rather soft. 

The stones are laid on this while it is wet, and all spaces filled as each 
course is laid and leveled. Some masons may prefer to make this mixture 
with a portion of lime added, the same as in cement mortar. 

Should bricks be used they may be laid on either the sand or cement bed 
the same as described for stone, except that about half the depth of sand will 
be sufficient. They should be arranged in the form shown in Fig. 43, by 
which method they are firmly bound together, and, if laid only upon sand, 



86 MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 

will retain their places for a long time. They are in some respects to be 
preferred to stone. 

Where the ground is soft or has soft spots, it will be necessary to excavate 
to comparatively hard ground and then fill in with solid earth — preferably 
gravel — which is to be tightly rammed or puddled to make it firm. Upon 
this the layer of sand may be placed as described. 

It is sometimes desirable to have engine room floors paved also, and occa- 
sionally with much larger and heavier stones than those described above. 
They should be carefully laid in cement mortar on a good concrete bed. 

If rolled iron plates, or cast iron plates are to be used they should be 
supported by brick piers and iron bars, or by brick w^alls supporting their 
ends, and at other points if their dimensions render it necessary. 

Cast iron plates may be made with strengthening ribs on their under 
side, by which means the supports may be much farther apart. Plates of 
rolled sheet steel with raised figures of various forms and patterns can be had, 
which make an excellent floor for engine or boiler rooms. 

The modern engine room is a much better appointed department than 
formerly. It should have a floor of narrow, matched hard pine, smoothly 
leveled off by hand planing, and the surface kept oiled with boiled linseed oil. 

The floor of the storehouse is of 2-inch planks, laid on 3 x 12 inch joists 
placed 1 5 inches from center to center, wmich in turn are supported by timbers 
10 x 12 inches, placed 10 feet apart from center to center and resting on piers, 
leaving 15 feet between supports. 

It the load which this floor is to carry warrants it, this distance should be 
reduced to 10 feet. The floor planks may be matched if desired, but for a 
floor for heavy machinery storage they need not be either matched or planed. 

The carpenter shop floor is of similar construction to the above, except that 
the joists are 2 x 10 inches, laid 18 inches from center to center, and supported 
at distances of 13 feet by 8 x 10 inch timbers, resting on piers 10 feet apart. 

The cupola platform or charging floor of the foundry is of 2§-inch planks 
laid on 3 x 12 inch joists, placed 12 inches from center to center, and supported 
in their centers by a 10 x 12 inch beam, whose ends rest in the brick w T alls, and 
its center upon an 8 x 8 inch post. The floor, at least in the vicinity of the 
cupola, should be protected by sheet iron smoothly nailed down. 

If preferred, the floor may be constructed entirely of iron. In this case, 
plate girders or I-beams should carry cross supports and the floor be composed 
of cast iron plates reaching from one support to the other, and having sup- 
porting ribs cast on their under sides. 

This form would, of course, make a much better method of construction, 
and in such a situation, much safer from the danger of fire, although more 
expensive. 



THE CONSTRUCTION OF FLOORS 87 

The floors of the wash rooms in the power house are of 1 \ x 6 inch matched 
planks, planed on both sides, and laid on 2x12 inch joists placed 16 inches 
from center to center. Iron or steel floors may be here used to advantage on 
account of the disagreeable odors produced by saturated w r ood floors. 

Floors in the office building, including the drawing room and pattern 
shop, are laid with a lining of ordinary pine J-inch thick, and covered by 
i-g-inch hard pine, planed and matched, and not over 3! inches wide, with 
the grain of the wood as shown in Fig. 47. 

The floors are laid on 3 x 12 inch joists placed 16 inches from center to 
center and supported by 10 x 12 inch beams set 12 feet from center to center. 

For the second floor these beams are supported on iron columns in the 
office and on 8 x 8 inch posts in the tool room, set 16 feet apart, making four 
posts or columns in the building 50 feet square, outside measurement. 

The timbers of the ground floor are supported on brick piers rising from 
the ground, which is excavated to a depth of at least three feet below the floor. 
One of these piers is under each post or column. 

In place of w r ooden beams and joists, iron or steel girders or I-beams may 
be introduced, making a construction more nearly fire-proof, particularly for 
the second floor, but adding materially to the expense. 

The floor of the pattern storage loft is of ij-inch matched planks laid on 
3 x 12 inch joists placed 16 inches from center to center and supported by 
I-beams 15 inches deep, one end resting in the front wall and the other on an 
18-inch box girder carrying the rear wall and resting on iron columns, as shown 
in the plan. 

As to the kind of lumber used in the floors of manufacturing buildings, 
spruce is by far the most common, and if properly selected is best for all 
ordinary purposes. Hard pine makes an excellent floor and is preferable 
where extra expense is not an obstacle. 

Occasionally, when cost is a secondary consideration, and a perfectly 
smooth surface is necessary, floors of hard maple are laid and carefully surfaced 
off by hand-planing. This makes probably the most durable of any of the 
wood floors. 

The author saw a floor about 125 x 250 feet, prepared with a concrete bed 
and then laid on the wet flowing coat with hard maple blocks 2x4x12 inches, 
laid on edge, and in the " herring-bone pattern" shown for bricks in Fig. 43. 
After the concrete had thoroughly set the surface was hand-planed and oiled. 

Of whatever kind of wood floors are made the material should be well 
seasoned, and if shrinkage cracks are to be avoided, the narrower the planks 
are the better, although 3 inches may be the minimum width. 

If they are 3 inches thick or more, then 6 inches should be the mini- 
mum width. 



CHAPTER XII 

THE SYSTEM OF HEATING AND VENTILATION 

Various heating systems. Leaking steam pipes. The condensation nuisance. Hot water 
heating. Hot air furnace. Of heating and ventilation. General requirements of a 
heating system. Form, size, and location of pipes. Construction of elbows, tees. Ys. 
and branches. The heating apparatus for the machine shop. Plan and cross-section. 
Heating surface required. General plan of the system. Location of the heating 
apparatus. Power for driving fans. Steam for heating. Heating apparatus for the 
foundry. Plans and cross-sections. Heating the office building. Plans and longitu- 
dinal sections. The proper temperatures for the different buildings. 

The construction of our several buildings being now completed and all 
arranged with proper consideration of the existing conditions and the expected 
circumstances by which we shall be governed, it is necessary that we should 
arrange for their proper and efficient heating and lighting. In this article 
the first of these questions, that of heating, will be considered. 

There are manv systems of heating buildings, amons: which are: Bv 
means of exhaust steam or of live steam, in lines of pipe arranged overhead 
or alons; the walls; bv coils or radiators: bv hot water utilized in a similar way; 
by air heated by furnace arrangements or by contact with pipes through which 
steam flows. All these systems have their good and bad features, both as to 
their warming qualities and their cost, as well as the expense of operating 
them. The hundreds of feet of steam pipes, with their numerous fittings, 
furnish at each joint opportunities for leaks, and special arrangements 
must be made to keep them clear of water. The distance from the boiler to 
the further end of long systems frequently requires much time to force 
enough steam to these points to warm the rooms so that they will be en- 
durable to workmen. 

The hot-water system works slowly and the temperature of the surrounding 
air rises gradually, so that the hour for beginning work in the morning must 
be anticipated by such a length of time as to be a serious drawback to complete 
success. The hot-air furnace crives air from which much of the moisture is 

o 

evaporated and which is therefore unwholesome, aside from the fine dust so 
often brought alone; with it. In all these svstems heating is the onlv end 
gained, ventilation being left largely to chance. 

88 



THE SYSTEM OF HEATING AND VENTILATION 89 

The ideal system of warming and ventilation would seem to be that in 
which fresh air, warmed by steam heat, is distributed by a suitable mechanical 
process, as evenly as possible to every part of the building, and one in which 
this can be done in the shortest time (as in most shops the heat is not main- 
tained during the night except at sufficient temperature to prevent freezing 
of water pipes, etc.), and in which cold air may be readily introduced when- 
ever needed. 

This seems to be best accomplished by drawing fresh air from without 
the building, passing it through a heating apparatus consisting of an iron case 
containing a large number of steam pipes, and, by means of a fan and suitable 
pipes, distributing this warmed air to every part of the building by numerous 
outlets. The whole should be controlled by proper dampers, by which a due 
proportion of warm and cold air may be furnished as needed, so that proper 
ventilation as well as warming may always be maintained. 

In the warming of such large buildings as those under consideration it is 
not necessary to draw cold air from the outside atmosphere to any great extent. 
The number of cubic feet of air contained in the building is largely in excess 
of that required for each person; and, moreover, cold air comes in through 
frequently opening large doors, while the swinging windows at the roof may 
be opened when necessary to permit the vitiated air to pass out, thus providing 
ample ventilation. 

Many pages might be written on this subject, but space permits only a 
few general requirements which are practically indispensable, and may be 
summed up as follows: 

The heating apparatus should be located near the center of the building 
so as to distribute the warm air to all points with the least amount of piping. 

Openings should be so arranged as to be not over 30 feet apart, and to 
open toward the outer walls of the building. They should not be less than 
8 feet above the floor, nor less than 5 inches diameter, and usually incline 
downward at an angle of about 10 degrees. The aggregate area of openings 
should exceed the area of the main pipe at the fan by about 25 per cent. 

About 6 square inches area of openings should be allowed to every thou- 
sand cubic feet of space contained in the building — or room, where the 
building is so divided. The velocity of air should not be less than 1,500 feet 
per minute, and a sufficient quantity should be supplied to change the air 
every 15 to 20 minutes. 

The pipes are preferably circular, as less material is required to make 
them of this form; furthermore, the circular pipes are stronger, and there is 
less friction of air in passing through them. For instance, a circular pipe 
5.65 inches in diameter will have an area of 25 square inches and its circum- 
ference will be 17.88 inches. A square pipe 5 inches each way will also have 



9° 



MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 



an area of 25 square inches, but the sum of its four sides will be 20 inches. 
A rectangular pipe 2 x 12.5 inches will be of equal area, but the sum of its sides 
will be 29 inches, or about 1.6 times greater than the circular pipe. 

Nevertheless it often happens that square or rectangular pipes are neces- 
sary, on account of lack of space. When such is the case this area of 
cross-section must be increased accordingly, so as to avoid undue friction. 
Galvanized iron is the most desirable material for these pipes and is almost uni- 
versally used where pipes separate from the building construction are employed. 
In factory buildings having several floors, proper flues and air ducts are 
arranged in the walls, and in the basement, where the heating apparatus is 
usually located. 

In constructing pipes several important rules must be observed. In 
making a change of direction of 90 degrees the elbows should be made of not 
less than 5 pieces, and the radius of the inside of the bend should not be less 
than the diameter of the pipe, as shown in Fig. 55. 




Fig. 55. 
Heating Pipe Elbows. 



Fig. 56. Fig. 57. 

Heating Pipe Y. Heating Pipe 
Reducer. 



Where a main pipe is divided, the construction should be as shown in 
Fig. 56, the pieces A A being the frustum of a cone whose diameter at the 
base and whose height are equal to the diameter of the main pipe, and whose 
smaller end is equal to the diameter of the branch pipe, as shown in Fig. 57. 
This pipe is then cut to the proper form to fit its counterpart, as shown in 

Fig- 56. 

Where branches are taken off from a main or leading pipe they should 
be so arranged as to leave the larger pipe at an angle of not over 45 degrees, 
and the inside radius should be not less than their diameter, as shown in Fig. 58. 
The contraction of the leading pipe, due to the taking off of this branch, 
should be made by the next sheet, the sheets being usually 30 inches wide. 



THE SYSTEM OF HEATING AND VENTILATION 1 



9i 




Fig. 58. — Branch leading from 
Main Heating Pipe. 



-12— >l 



This reduction of area should not be quite as much as the area of the branch 
pipe. 

The further the air travels from the fan, the less force it has, and this should 
be compensated for, as far as may be, by slight allowances in area as the 
various branches are taken off, bearing in mind that this allowance should 
finally lead up to 25 per cent excess of outlet areas over the area of the main 
pipe at the fan. 

In offices and comparatively small rooms the outlets are usually in the 
form of rectangular registers 
placed in the side walls near 
the ceiling. The area of these 
should be from two to three 
times the area of the pipe lead- 
ing to them. 

Fig. 59 shows the plan of 
the arrangement of the heating 
system of the machine shop 
and Fig. 60 a cross-section of 

the same, giving the diameters of the pipes at various distances from the 
heaters; and the number, direction, diameter, and location of the openings, 
not only for the machine shop proper but for the carpenter shop, wash 
rooms, etc. 

The heating apparatus consists of a rectangular iron case containing a 
large number of steam pipes of practically U-shaped form, inverted and 
connected to a cast iron base in such a manner that one leg of the pipe connects 
with the space through which the steam is admitted and the other leg con- 
nects with the space from which the drip is taken. These pipes should be 
located as close to each other as practicable, the rows of pipes being set "stag- 
gering" so as to break up the currents of air. The casing which surrounds 
them and connects with the inlet of the fan should also be formed as closely 
to the pipes as may be, in order that all air which is drawn through may come 
into close contact with the heating surfaces of the pipes. 

It is customary to allow one foot of i-inch pipe, or its equivalent, to each 
100 to 150 cubic feet of contents of the building to be heated, when all the air 
is taken from out-of-doors. In the case under consideration, with one half or 
more of the air from within the building the higher figure would probably be 
ample. At the end opposite the fan are located dampers for regulating the 
amount of air supply. One of these may be connected with a cold-air duct 
from out-of-doors, where necessary. 

Referring to Figs. 59 and 60 the location of the apparatus is seen to be 
in the gallery floor, near the center of the building. The fan has two discharge 



Q2 



MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 



Ni 



15 



IS 



21 



^ 



23 



25 



HEATER ! ' 



29! 



25 



23 



21 



18 



15 






29 



129" 



*? 



MACHINE 

SHOP 
100 x 375 



29 



3d 
34] 



18 



23 



25 



27 



29 



|29" 




. VI FAN 



5 J36" 12" "|~8*^ 8 ,= 8^ 

^GALLERY WASH ROOM 




M 



Fig. 59. — Plan of Heating System for Machine Shop. 



THE SYSTEM OF HEATING AND VENTILATION 



93 



openings, one downward for warming the side wings of the first floor, and one 
at an upward angle for the same service on the gallery floor. The returning 




Cu 
o 

CO 



o 



CO 



U 



o 

6 



°22 

H<0 



currents of air flow into the central portion of the building and warm that 
portion in their upward course. 



94 MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 

Two sets of apparatus are used, for the reason that the traveling crane 
over the central portion of the shop prevents convenient connections between 
the two sides; and further, that the space to be heated is so large that the 
questions of convenience and economy are best met by this arrangement. 

The apparatus on the side nearest the power house will require a fan 
with a wheel say ioo inches diameter by 52 inches wide, and running at about 
185 revolutions per minute. This will supply from its downward opening 
the pipes for the main floor, including that leading to the carpenter shop and to 
the wash room on the first floor ; and from its upward opening it supplies the 
pipes from the gallery floor, including one for the wash room on the second floor. 

The apparatus on the opposite side of the shop should have a fan with a 
wheel say 90 inches diameter by 48 inches wide, running at about 205 revo- 
lutions per minute. The pipe connections are similar to the first apparatus, 
except that there are no long branch pipes to be provided for. Hence, while 
a 36-inch pipe is necessary for the side toward the power house, in order to 
warm the carpenter shop and the wash rooms, one of 29 inches diameter will 
be quite sufficient for the opposite side. It should be said that the dimensions 
given on the drawings are from actual calculations, taking into consideration 
all the circumstances of the form and dimensions of the buildings, and they 
will probably be found correct in practice as in theory. 

The openings for the discharge of warm air into the building are directed 
toward the outer walls and downward at an inclination of about 10 degrees. 
This arrangement is clearly shown in the drawings, Figs. 59 and 60. 

The pipes should be well riveted as they are put up, and securely fastened 
so that they may not be loosened by any jarring or vibration, either of the 
building or that caused by the pressure of air passing through them. 

The fans may be driven by an electric motor or by an engine attached to 
each fan; or, if preferred, by belts from the main line of shafting. Any of 
these methods is efficient and has its particular advantages. If an engine is 
used, the large fan will require it to be of about 27 horse-power and that for 
the other fan should be of about 20 horse-power. 

Live steam being used for heating, the large apparatus will probably 
require a supply pipe of 6 inches in diameter and the smaller one of 5 inches. 
The apparatus should be so constructed that a section of it may be separately 
connected for using the exhaust steam from the fan engine. In the same way 
the exhaust from the main engines of the works may be utilized and thus save 
a considerable portion of the live steam required. 

In arranging for heating the foundry, different conditions are met with. 
With the exception of the chipping and pickling room heat is required hardly 
more than half the time, that is, during the forenoon, and perhaps for an hour 
or more after the dinner hour, as the heat from the cupolas is considerable. 



THE SYSTEM OF HEATING AND VENTILATION 



95 



The general plan of the system is the same as that employed in the ma- 
chine shop. The apparatus requires 
but little room on the floor and con- 
sists of a fan having a wheel about 
78 inches in diameter and 24 inches 
wide, running at about 400 revolu- 
tions per minute, and will require 
about 6 horse-power to drive it. 

An arrangement of pipes can, 
of course, be made whereby the 
chipping and pickling room could be 
warmed independently of the foun- 
dry proper, but it would probably 
not be necessary. 

Figs. 61 and 62 show the ar- 
rangement of the foundry system of 
heating, with diameters of the pipes 
and openings. It will be preferable 
to run this fan by an electric motor 
or a small engine, and since these 
fan blowers for heating purposes are 
now made with simple and compact 
engines attached to them, which re- 
quire very little attention, aside from 
starting, stopping, and oiling up, 
they are very convenient in such 
situations. 

It is always important to have 
the heater as near the space to be 
warmed as possible. 

The office building, including 
the pattern shop, drawing room, and 
tool department, is heated by an 
apparatus located in the tool room 
and forming a separate system. 

Fig. 63 gives plans of the first 
floor and Fig. 64 that of the second 
floor. Fig. 65 is a longitudinal sec- 
tion through the building. A heating apparatus of the same size and capacity 
as that used in the foundry is employed. It may be driven by a separate 
engine, or a motor, or belted from the shaft which drives the machines in 




9 6 



MACHINI -HOP CONSTRUCTION 



the tool room. This '.: ::rr plan is probably the best, since the power is con- 
venient, and the first cost may be lessened without sacrificing any desirable 

feature in another direction. 




CHIPPING AND PiCKLM 
ROOWi 



Fig. 62. — Plan of Heatuir - l~±— :':: r : -adiy. 




Fig. 63. — Plan of Heating 
tem for Office Building. First 
Floor. 



111-. : _ — - __r_ : : .. - 1 

.- ".an for Office Bnfln— 
ing. Second Floor. 



The system of piping is clearly shown in the illustration and n 
explanation. The main pipe passing through over the driveway 
amply protected, preferably by being encased in a wooden box seve 
larger than itself, the space being filled with sawdu-: : : similar mat 



THE SYSTEM OF HEATING AND VENTILATION 



97 



this again is covered by another box large enough to leave an air space of 
about three inches between the two, on all sides. 

For the office rooms the pipes may be of rectangular form, concealed by 
suitable architectural finish of the ceiling, in which lateral openings for 
registers may be made. Or, proper air ducts may be formed in the side walls 
and the registers placed at suitable intervals. Or, again, the pipes may be 
carried around inside the walls, close to the ceilings, and registers located in 
the same manner. 

There may be for this system the double-duct arrangement. That is, 




Fig. 65. — Longitudinal Section through Office Building. 

two sets of pipes or ducts, one carrying cold and one warm air, the registers 
being so arranged that they will furnish one or the other, or a mixture of both, 
by means of what is technically known as a " mixing damper." 

In offices and rooms of moderate size which are heated by warm air being 
forced into them near the ceiling, it is usual to provide means of escape for 
the air as it cools and descends to the floor, through grated openings placed 
two or three feet from the floor, and connected with flues or ducts leading to 
the roof. But in offices where doors are frequently opened this does not seem 
to be necessary, the matter of ventilation being of small consequence compared 
to that of heating. 

The forge shop and various other buildings require no special arrange- 
ments for heating. The water-closet rooms may be warmed sufficiently by 
providing grated openings in the wall dividing them from the boiler room. 
They should be near the ceiling, on each floor. 

The question of proper temperature of shops where men are at active 
work should be considered as quite different from providing for heating a 
factory where the work is usually much lighter, the number of employees per 
hundred feet of floor space much greater, and frequently a large proportion 
of them females. 

In a machine shop devoted to a medium class of work, a temperature of 
about 60 degrees will be found generally comfortable to the majority of the 
men. We have known of shops where the temperature seldom went above 
50 degrees in cold weather, and there was no complaint, The former figure 
will, however, be more satisfactory. 



98 MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 

The temperature in the storeroom, tool room, and pattern shop will need 
to be about 65 degrees, and in the drawing room and offices, between this and 
70 degrees. Unless the ventilation is very carefully attended to, there is more 
danger in having these latter rooms too warm than not warm enough, and 
any system of heating which does not recognize the importance of good and 
thorough ventilation is radically wrong in both theory and practice. 



CHAPTER XIII 

THE SYSTEM OF LIGHTING 

Natural and artificial lighting. Forms and proportions of windows. Different kinds of 
glass. Position of windows. Diagrams illustrating various forms of lighting. The 
width of windows. Benedict's system of window construction, with illustrations. 
The good features of the plan. Skylights. Translucent substitute for glass. Shades 
and curtains. Artificial light. The hours of lighting by artificial light. Systems of 
artificial light. Electricity the most useful. Some of the old-time methods of lighting. 
To have light we must submit to heat. Arc lights versus incandescent lights. Advan- 
tages and disadvantages. Portable electric lights. Both arc and incandescent lights 
should be used. The dynamos. Distribution of lights. In the machine shop. The 
traveling crane space must be left unobstructed. In the galleries. In the foundry. 
In the forge shop. In the storehouse and carpenter shop. In the engine room. Arc 
lights in the yard. In the office building. Number of lights for the entire plant. 
Power necessary to supply the current. General arrangement shown in the plans. 

The heating and ventilation of our manufacturing buildings having been 
duly provided for in the last chapter, the next question of importance to be 
considered is that of lighting, which forms the subject of the present chapter. 

In considering the matter of lighting manufacturing buildings we may 
properly divide the subject into two parts. The first of these relates to the 
utilization and management of the sunlight for our use during the daytime; 
and the second, to the artificial light which we must provide in the absence of 
sunlight and in the dark and obscure corners, of which there should be as few 
as possible in the modern shop. 

For properly lighting a shop during the daytime, many forms and pro- 
portions of windows have been devised, from those of small area and diminu- 
tive lights of glass, to those very high and narrow ; those broad and low ; those 
of large area placed far apart; those of much less area placed near together; 
those covering almost the entire wall with glass area ; those placed vertical and 
those in an inclined position; those placed as skylights in the roof; and those 
placed in the ventilating space at the top or ridge of the roof. 

Again, as to the kind and quality of glass used. Some prefer the ordinary 
plain glass, admitting a flood of light, regulating it by means of shades or 
curtains. Others use the same glass, " stippling" the surface with white zinc 
thinned with spirits of turpentine to relieve the eyes of the glaring light. Again, 

99 



IOO 



MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 



ground glass is used. Still others prefer the rough cast or "cathedral" glass, 
as it is sometimes called. 

What is called " ribbed glass," with the ribs or ridges running in a hori- 
zontal direction, is probably better than either. One inventor proposes to 
construct windows composed of a series of round rods of glass placed closely 
together, and states that one of its advantages is that if broken by a flying 
chip, or in any similar manner, only one or at most a few of the rods will be 
injured, and these may be easily and cheaply replaced. 

In reviewing these various methods of construction it may be said that 
broad and low windows in the side walls will light the bench at the wall and 
perhaps one or two rows of machines, while the center of the room receives 
little or no illumination. This condition is sometimes sought to be remedied 
by the use of skylights in the roof. 

Windows placed too high in the side walls will light the center of the room 
but leave the benches around the walls in the shadows of the high window sills. 
Therefore it is proper to so locate the window sill as to afford proper light at 
the bench vises; then to continue the window well up to the ceiling in order 
that the whole room may receive, as nearly as may be, an equal quantity of 
light. 

In order that one may get a clear idea of the difference in the capacity of 
the various heights, positions, and angles of windows, several diagrams are 
presented to illustrate the matter. 

Fig. 66 shows a cross-section of wall with the work bench in proper posi- 
tion, and the room lighted with one of the older styles of windows, which were 



21 ft: 



/! 



25 fk -p^- 



Fig. 66. — Lighting Diagram. Low Windows. 



Fig. 67. — Lighting Diagram. High Windows. 



placed considerably lower than is now the practice. It will be noticed that 
the rays of light entering at an angle of 30 degrees, the highest beam of light 
will touch the floor at a distance of 21 feet. 

Fig. 67 shows a similar cross-section with the window placed high up, and 
it will be seen that the distance reached by the light is 25 feet, or about 20 
per cent farther. At the same time the work which the machinist is doing 
at the bench is properly illuminated. 

Fig. 68 shows a cross-section through the machine shop, and gives the 



THE SYSTEM OF LIGHTING 



IOI 



floor surfaces illuminated by parallel beams of light at various angles. It 
should be understood, of course, that in all these cases light is not confined 
to these surfaces, since it is always more or less strongly diffused over a much 
larger space. These diagrams are only intended to show the relative amount 
of illumination. 




Fig. 68. — Lighting Diagram. Section through the Machine Shop. 

Fig. 69 is a cross-section of the newer form of saw-tooth roof construction, 
and illustrates the largely increased amount of surface lighted up by this 
method, which is now generally regarded as the best method of lighting up 
large areas in one-story shops. In this system of lighting the windows should 
face towards the north. 

The width of the windows and their distance apart is a matter of great 
difference of opinion. Where the construction is of steel or wood they fnay 
be placed less than two feet apart, if it seems necessary to do this. Where 
brick walls are used the distance should generally be more, depending, of 
course, on the entire height of the wall. 




Fig. 69. — Lighting Diagram. The Saw-tooth Construction of Roof. 

In our arrangement of the windows in the machine shop (as given in 
Chapter II) the size is 4 feet wide and 10 feet high. These figures are the 
dimensions of the inside of the sashes, therefore providing 40 square feet of 
glass. This will make the opening in the wall nearly 5 feet wide, which, with 
bays of 18 feet 3 inches centers, two windows to each bay, will give about 4 
feet 2 inches of brickwork between the windows. This will give sufficient 



102 



MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 



strength to the side walls, and will also provide quite enough light for all 
ordinary classes of machine shop work to be done in such a building. 

In reference to the details of construction of the windows of machine 
shops and factory buildings, Mr. Edwy E. Benedict, of Waterbury, Conn., a 
successful designer of factory buildings, has adopted the plan of having in 
each window three sashes, each containing two lights of glass. In the case 
illustrated they are of 24 x 24 glass, making a window of 4 x 6 feet, as shown 
in front elevation in Fig. 70. An outside elevation of the upper portion is 
shown in Fig. 71; a horizontal section of one jamb, with sash, glass, weather 
strips, etc., in Fig. 72; an inside elevation, showing the inside finish at the top 
and bottom, in Fig. 73; and a vertical cross-section in Fig. 74. 




Fig. 70. — Outside Elevation 
of Benedict's Shop Window. 




Fig. 71. — Outside Elevation of upper portion. 



Some of the good features of this plan will, no doubt, be heartily com- 
mended by practical men. For instance, in Fig. 71 it will be noticed that the 
flat arch on the outside face of the wall reaches down below the segment, or 
supporting arch, which is shown in dotted lines in this figure, and drawn in 
full lines in Fig. 73. The vertical section in Fig. 78 shows its office, of making 
the top of the window weather-tight. It will also be noticed, by reference to 
Fig. 72, that the side face casings are built into the brick wall for the same 
purpose. These points, with the use of the Tabor weather strips, make a 
perfectly weather-tight arrangement that will be greatly appreciated by the 



THE SYSTEM OF LIGHTING 



io 3 



I 



TABOR STRIP 
AND FIXTURES 



P 



BRICK 






workmen in the shop, as well as the man who pays the coal bills. The working 
details arc quite clearly shown in the several views. 

Windows may be made of any desired height by increasing the length of 
the lights of glass. Thus, 24 x 36 glass would make 
a window 4 by 9 feet. 

The bottom sash is glazed with clear glass, and 
the two above it with ribbed glass, the ribs running 
horizontal in all cases. 

Skylights should not be used where they can be 
avoided, as they are a prolific source of leaky roofs, 
damage by accidental breakage, as well as numer- 
ous other difficulties, and even a light fall of snow 
quite destroys their lighting properties. 



Fig. 72. — Horizontal Section of 
Window jamb, sash, glass, etc. 




A translucent material formed on a fine 
wire netting is an excellent substitute for glass 
where skylights must be used. It gives a soft, 
diffused light and there is no danger of breakage 
as with glass. Windows in the ventilating por- 
tion of the roof are not only useful for lighting 
the central portion of the shop, but they con- 
veniently act as ventilators when the sashes are 
hung on pivots and handled by cords. They 
may easily be so constructed as to avoid any 
trouble from leaking. 

As to the kind of glass to be used, the plain 
glass is, of course, the cheapest. It must, how- 
ever, be shaded by curtains, which can be 
readily run up and down ; and these are liable to 
get out of order and to require a continual expense 
to keep them in presentable and useful condi- 
tion. The amount thus spent added to the cost 
of plain glass will soon pay for good ground 
glass which will need no curtains, and which, 
while rendering the light soft and agreeable to 
the eyes of the workmen, will also diffuse it over 
the area of the shop much better and more 
equally than the plain glass. At the same time 

Fig. 73. — Inside Elevation, showing none f t h e {{gfa [ s \ Qst fty interposed shades Or 

inside finish. J . 

curtains. 
As to " stippled" glass, the stipple is apt to crack and peal off, and will 
also absorb considerable dirt and grease, making it much more difficult to 



104 



MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 



• 




keep clean than clear or ground glass; and the repeated washings are apt to 
remove portions of the "stippling," leaving a patched and unsightly effect. 
The rough or "cathedral" glass is more expensive, not as agreeable to the 
eyes, and considerably lessens the volume of light. Windows of glass rods 
do not seem to have been sufficiently employed to demonstrate their usefulness. 
Ribbed glass is now quite popular for shop windows and diffuses a soft and 
agreeable light, and seems best adapted for the purpose. 

We have seen shops in which practically the whole 
side wall was a mass of glass, only the space for the posts 
supporting the roof and the frames containing the sashes 
being opaque. Such a prodigality of light does not seem 
necessary in practice, and in fact it may be hurtful to 
the eyesight of the workmen, while the cost of construc- 
tion and the continual cost of renewals and repairs of 
such a great quantity of glass will be a large initial ex- 
pense as well as an important annual outlay. The 
expense of heating will also be largely increased. 

Let us now consider the question of artificial light. 
First, the usual time during which we must provide for 
artificially lighting up the buildings. Omitting the six 
usual holidays of the year and calculating on the basis of 
a ten-hour day, we have 3,060 working hours in a year's 
work. If the working day begins at 7 A. M. and ends at 
6 p. M., with one hour for dinner, we shall need arti- 
ficial light, for the ordinarily well-lighted shops, for about 
460 hours out of the entire 3,060 working hours of the 
year. 

This will include " lighting-up time" divided among 
the different months as follows: January, 102 hours; Feb- 
ruary, 60 hours; March, 32 hours; May, 8 hours; June 
and July, none; August, 8 hours; September, 20 hours; 
October, 50 hours; November, 78 hours; and December, 
102 hours. 

To properly provide for sufficient lighting during 
these periods we must select some one of the many sys- 
tems in use, and the one which seems best adapted to 
the conditions of the case. Whatever may be the future 
development, either as to perfecting and simplifying its 
application, extending its sphere of usefulness, or reducing its cost, electricity 
at present stands at the head, when the question of a perfect light, or at 
least the most available one, is considered, for the illumination of nearly 





BRICK- 
SECTION 



Fig. 74. — Vertical 
Cross Section. 



THE SYSTEM OF LIGHTING 105 

all classes of large buildings, particularly such as are used for manufactur- 
ing purposes. 

Still there seem to be indications that there may be yet other systems of 
artificial lighting which by development may become dangerous rivals of the 
popular systems of electric lighting — acetylene gas, for instance. This 
method is still in the infancy of its development and use, and there seem very 
few of the usual difficulties to be overcome excepting the danger of its explosion 
in the hands of inexperienced persons. This difficulty will probably be over- 
come in time and the use of it be as safe, both to generate and to manage, as 
electricity. 

It is also true that the system of electric lighting has many fatal accidents 
charged against it. These may all have been due to improperly constructed 
apparatus, the careless management of it, or the imperfect knowledge of its 
properties and action. The same may be said of acetylene gas. 

That we have yet attained to the perfect artificial light no one will 
have the courage to assert, since improvements are continually in progress 
in this direction, but at present we must be satisfied with electricity, with 
gas as a supplementary light when the electric current is not available. 

To provide an ample, proper, safe, and thorough system of illumination 
for buildings in which a large number of persons are obliged to labor for so 
many hours each year by its aid, would seem to be a matter that need not be 
argued or advocated. Yet there are many shops at the present time so con- 
structed that some kind of an artificial light is needed all through the day, 
and in some at nearly all seasons of the year, and this condition prevails over 
a considerable part of the working space. 

The result must necessarily be that both the quantity and the quality of 
the work done is below the standard, while the health and the eyesight t>f the 
employees are both unnecessarily impaired, since sunlight and fresh air are 
two very important elements necessary to the health, activity, and usefulness 
of the human family. Ofttimes the evil results from a lack of consideration 
or appreciation of these necessities, and sometimes perhaps from a false idea 
of economy on the part of those having charge of such matters, which has led 
them to provide very indifferent substitutes for sunlight, or, in its absence, a 
proper artificial light. 

For it is true, "and pity 'tis, 'tis true," that in some shops, even in this 
enlightened age, many hours' work is done by the smoky glimmer of dirty oil 
lamps, these relics of a bygone age, since they are not many steps in advance 
of the vessels of oil with their fibrous wicks resting against one side, used in 
the days of Abraham, 1920 B.C. 

Although the common use of petroleum oils in various degrees of refining 
have revolutionized the old-time lamp, and the simplifying of the processes for 



io6 MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 

generating and purifying illuminating gas have produced two very useful 
illuminants within the reach of nearly every one, they will probably never 
regain the position which they lost when the practical utility of electric lighting 
became a recognized fact. 

The one great drawback to all artificial means of illumination is that to 
produce light we must generate heat: and hence, however we produce light, 
whether by the combustion of oil or gas. or by the generation of an electric 
current to form a brilliant arc. or a glowing incandescence, we must necessarily 
waste a large percentage of energy in producing heat which we do not want 
and which is often a very serious objection. 

We shall therefore not have the perfect light until we have been able to 
produce the illumination we desire without generating heat. Whether we 
shall ever realize that much-sought condition is a question for future develop- 
ment and invention to demonstrate. 

In the application of the electric light in manufacturing operations we 
have the choice of the arc lamp and the incandescent lamp. Both have their 
objections as well as their merits. The arc lamp, being much more powerful 
and projecting its rays a much greater distance than the incandescent lamp, 
is well adapted to illuminating large areas, where there are comparatively 
few obstructions. In confined situations, or where there are many obstruc- 
tions, it produces disagreeable shadows, and its glaring brilliancy is hurtful 
to the eyesight of the workmen. 

Translucent globes or shades may be used, of course, but these devices 
necessarily reduce the illuminating power of the lamp. Again, the arc lamp 
is not readily moved from place to place, even short distances, so that the 
workmen must often stand literally "in his own light." 

The incandescent lamp gives a much softer and more agreeable light to 
the eves of the workmen, who mav work manv hours bv its aid with less dis- 
comfort than by almost any other light. It is also much more portable than 
the arc lamp, since it may be provided with flexible conducting cords of any 
convenient length, and hung up or held in the hand in the most desirable 
positions. 

Still another convenience of the incandescent lamp is that of being able 
to locate a magnet in the base of it. by which means the lamp is retained in 
any desired position by simply placing it against any iron or steel surface. 
This is a matter of great convenience when working in dark corners or making 
repairs under machines, where the usual fixed lights are of little use and where 
ordinal*}' incandescent lamps must be held in the hand: and also in awkward 
positions such as are frequently found during the work of erecting heavy 
machinery or repairing it. 

These convenient characteristics of the incandescent lamp render it 



THE SYSTEM OF LIGHTING 107 

valuable for practical use in the machine shop. It may be readily placed in 
confined situations where an arc light could not, and it may be used much 
nearer the eyes of the workman without injury. 

It would therefore seem wise, in devising a system of artificial lighting, 
to avail ourselves of the advantages offered by both the arc and the incan- 
descent lamps, each in the places where their special merits can be made use 
of. Both types of lamps may be operated by the current from one dynamo, 
by the use of proper transformers, but it will usually be found more practical 
to put in a dynamo specially designed for each system. 

More recently a light has been produced by the action of an electric 
current upon mercury confined in a glass tube two feet or more in length. 
A peculiarity of this light is to render yellow tints more pronounced and 
giving a peculiar green tint to many objects. 

Ample space has been provided in the engine room for dynamos for this 
purpose, as well as for furnishing the necessary current for operating the 
traveling crane in the machine shop and the power required in the foundry. 

In the machine shop the clear space needed for the traveling crane pre- 
cludes the suspending of arc lamps through this central portion, but they may 
be placed between and a little inside of the line of the columns. They should 
be about 50 feet apart, which would require 14 lamps on the main floor. In 
addition to these a sufficient number of incandescent lamps should be provided 
to accommodate the individual needs of the men operating machines, wherever 
such additional illumination is necessary from the location of the machines 
and the character of the work. 

They should also be provided at the small tool-distributing room and in 
the foremen's offices, and a number should also be hung upon the columns, 
having sufficient length of conductor cord attached to them so that they may 
be used in erecting machines in the central space. 

From the character of the machines employed and the work done in the 
galleries the incandescent lamp will be the most suitable. There should be 
at least one to each machine and in the case of long lathes one to every ten 
or twelve feet of bed. A lamp should also be hung at the head of each stairway. 

The large open space of the foundry may well be provided with arc 
lamps, four of which will be sufficient, supplemented by a few incandescent 
lamps with long cords hung on the columns, for use in deep molds and similar 
places left in darkness by the arc-light shadows. 

The chipping and pickling room will require one arc lamp and several 
incandescent lamps, all provided w T ith wire nettings for protecting them from 
flying chips. The core room, wash room, foreman's office, water-closets, the 
space under the cupola platform, etc., will require incandescent lamps. 

The forge shop w T ill be best served by two arc lights in the main part, 



ioS MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 

and by incandescent lamps in the foreman's office, wash rooms, water-closets 
and perhaps in the bar stock storage space. 

One arc lamp in the storehouse and one in the carpenter shop, with 
perhaps two or three incandescent lamps in the latter, will be sufficient. 

The boiler room will require an arc lamp hung over the tram track so 
as to fully illuminate the boiler fronts, and two or three incandescent lamps 
convenient to the space in the rear of the boilers and in similar places. The 
same number and kind of lamps will answer for the engine room. The 
adjoining wash rooms and water-closets should be provided with incandescent 
lamps, say four in each of the former and three in each of the latter. 

An arc lamp erected on a pole 20 feet high should be located in the yard 
between the foundry and the power house and about 35 feet from the machine 
shop. A similar one should be placed in the center of the space between the 
storage sheds, carpenter shop, power house, and the forge shop. These will 
greatly facilitate vard work near the close of the short winter davs. 

The entire front building, including the offices, tool rooms, pattern shop, 
pattern storage loft, drawing room, etc.. should be lighted by incandescent 
lamps, those in each room being arranged to suit the peculiar conditions in 
each case, as to the kind of shades and reflectors employed. 

To equip the entire plant as described above will require say 27 arc lamps 
and 267 incandescent lamps, the latter number being somewhat lessened or 
considerablv increased according to the character of the machinerv to be 
manufactured, as whatever change in tins respect is made would most likely 
affect the incandescent lamps and possibly the arc lamps as well. 

In providing for the amount of current necessary to supply this system 
of lighting we should make allowance for any possible increase that may be 
called for by unforeseeen circumstancs. or by a change in the products of the 
concern, and it would usually be safe to add for this purpose at least 10 per 
cent. 

The power necessary to run the dynamos with the added 10 per cent 
will be about 30 horse-power for the arc lamps and 20 horse-power for the 
incandescent lamps, or a total of say 50 horse-power to be provided for, in 
calculating the capacity of the proposed engines. 

By referring to the general plan drawing given in Chapter II, the arrange- 
ment of the lamps as herein described may be readily understood. 



CHAPTER XIV 

POWER AND TRANSMISSION 

It is ofttimes a complex subject. The different systems. Steam is at the head. Electricity. 
Compressed air. Transmission of power. Various systems. Belts. Ropes. Chains. 
All systems are merely that of transmitting power. Water and steam are our original 
sources of power. The systems of transmission, or distribution of power. The boiler 
room. Types of boilers. The best type. Mechanical stoking. Boiler settings. 
Longitudinal section. Cross-section. Horizontal section. Smoke connections. Steam 
connections. Foundations for boiler settings. Gas engines. Steam engines. Trans- 
mission by belts and shafts, or by electric motors. Compressed air for foundry and 
forge shop. Compressed air in the machine shop. Motors for individual machines. 
The system adopted. Lighting dynamos. Driving the steam hammer in the forge 
shop. Boiler and pipe coverings. 

In considering the question of power and its transmission to the different 
points in the plant where it will be required, we are confronted by a rather 
complex subject, and one which has been much discussed by many competent 
engineers in nearly all the mechanical journals during the past few years. 
Steam is now, and for probably an indefinite time will be, the favorite and 
controlling power generator, since to it we owe all other forms, not of power, 
but of the transmission of power. The various methods and theories have 
had able champions in the special line in which they have been interested, and 
rival claims have been ingeniously advocated to prove that they were the 
best methods to be adopted for nearly all conditions. 

One class have proven, to their own satisfaction at least, that while 
electricity is still in a very imperfect state of development and generally very 
imperfectly understood by a large majority of mechanics, it is to be the coming 
power for all purposes and may be used under nearly all conditions. Many 
of these claims have been well substantiated and the fact is that to-day there 
is a far greater and more general use of electricity in transmitting power than 
was thought possible even ten years ago. The ultimate limit to its usefulness 
no one can foresee. 

Again, the advocates of compressed air have shown that this has many 
advantages as an easily transmitted and very useful power, and in its special 
sphere is doing very efficient and admirable work. New applications are 

109 



no MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 

constantly being found for it, and many operations formerly performed bv 
hand are very much quicker, cheaper, and better accomplished by its use. 
The sphere of its usefulness has broadened very much in the last few vears 
and now we find it in nearly all up-to-date shops, for a large variety of pur- 
poses. In this it does not take the place of electricity, but rather is used in 
conjunction with it, or with steam power for the purpose of providing the 
compressed air, as may be most convenient. 

The old-time mechanic is. however, apt to '•pin his faith" to shafting and 
belts as the most reliable method of transmitting power, perhaps because he 
is better acquainted with this method; while the younger men are prone to 
argue the efficiency of rope transmission as the proper method. Many 
examples of efficient service by rope transmission might be cited, yet for the 
general purposes of a machine shop it is doubtful if it will ever replace leather 
belting altogether. 

Recently the utility of transmission by chain has been revived and the 
interest in the subject very much increased by the improved forms adopted 
by later inventors. It is often exceedingly useful for the transmission of 
power within the limits of a single machine, formerly for operating feeds, and 
later for transmitting the principal power of the machine. Properly con- 
structed, this system would seem to have a broad and practical field of useful- 
ness in the future. 

But all of these methods and systems, when reduced to the plane of 
practice in providing for the power plant of manufacturing concerns, are simply 
so many different methods of transmitting and distributing power, since it is 
to water or steam that we must look for our original power. We are confined. 
then, to these two sources of power — water and steam — and where the 
location does not provide us water power we must accept steam. Assuming 
the latter conditions in our manufacturing plant we must provide for steam 
as our source of power. 

This having been settled, the best means of transmitting the power to 
the machines on the ground floor of the machine shop, to those on the gallery 
floors, to those in the tool room and pattern shop, and to the forge shop, 
foundry, and carpenter shop, must also be considered. 

The question of boilers will naturally come first, and. in this connection, 
the type best adapted to the work; also the best method of setting them to 
produce the most efficient results. Next, the type and the dimensions of the 
engine, and the manner of its connections. And lastly, the method of trans- 
mitting the power to the machines to be driven. 

In arranging our power plant we begin with the boiler room. We shall 
need a working capacity of at least 500 horse-power. This may be distributed 
in a battery of boilers of 100 horse-power each. One extra boiler is added so 






POWER AND TRANSMISSION in 

that in case of an accident to one of them, necessitating repairs, five of them 
may still be in proper working condition. Four of these boilers will be needed 
to run the engine, which leaves a margin of ioo horse-power with which to 
supply the necessary steam for other purposes about the plant. 

Under ordinary conditions a sixth boiler may be added, giving 200 horse- 
power for these purposes. By this arrangement there is the additional advan- 
tage that the boilers may be cleaned one at a time without shutting down the 
power. 

The styles and types of boilers in the market are many and various, and 
most of them have good and practical claims to consideration in one way or 
another. But it is somewhat doubtful if any type will be devised that will 
become as popular for general use — or in the long run any more efficient and 
economical for hard, every-day service — as the return tubular type. 

Ofttimes the space in which the boilers must be located will determine 
the type, whether they shall be upright or horizontal; and the method of 
firing them, as well as the kind of fuel to be used, must also be taken into con- 
sideration. 

Mechanical stoking is used with success in some instances, but as yet 
has not come into general use. Both oil and natural gas as a fuel are much 
used in such localities as render them more economical than coal. 

Our boilers will therefore be of the return tubular type, fired by hand, 
with the usual kind of soft or bituminous coal. They will be 66 inches diam- 
eter and 16 feet long, exclusive of the curtain sheet under the space occupied 
by the "up-take," or smoke connection. 

The arrangement for setting the boilers is shown in vertical, longitudinal 
section in Fig. 75; in a half vertical cross-section, and half front elevation in 
Fig. 76, and in a horizontal section above the grate line in Fig. 77. 

There are several matters in connection with the setting of boilers which 
should be strictly attended to. Among these are the following: Two courses 
of bricks should be laid above the floor line of the boiler room for the boiler 
fronts to rest upon; the top course at least should be headers, and carefully 
leveled up. They should be so located that at least two inches will project in 
front of the boiler fronts. The ashpits should be cemented so as to allow of 
the introduction of a few inches of water. 

The front supporting brackets should rest fairly upon iron plates in 
the side walls, while the rear brackets rest on rollers, which in turn rest on 
the iron plates set in the walls, by which arrangement all expansion of the 
boiler is toward the rear. The brickwork around the brackets should be 
entirely clear of them so as to leave the boilers opportunity to expand and 
contract without injury to the walls. 

The grates should incline from front to back from J to | inch per foot. 



112 



MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 




Fig. 75. — Longitudinal Section of Boiler Setting. 

The bridge wall should come up to within 12 or 14 inches of the bottom of 

the boiler, and be curved to suit its form, although this is not absolutely 

necessary. The width of grate surface should be equal to the diameter of 

the boiler. 

The side walls of the furnace are to incline outwards, so as to be two 

inches from the sides of the boiler, at a 
point one course of bricks below the bot- 
tom of the brackets. The fire bricks 
should be laid with a header course every 
five courses, so that burned-out bricks 
may be conveniently replaced. 

At each side of the fire doors cast 
iron " cheek-pieces " should be put in, 
the cast iron arch plate over the door 
resting on them. These " cheek-pieces" 
should be about i\ inches thick, of the 
form shown in Fig. 77, and have as many 
half -inch holes cored in them as possible, 
the holes spaced two inches from center 
to center, for an air supply to prevent 
them from burning out. Their height is 
equal to the height of the fire door at the 

side. They will be found to be very durable and to save much expense in 

fire brick repairs. 

They may be removed and replaced whenever the furnace is cool, by 

jacking up the arch plate a trifle and letting it down on the new " cheek-piece " 




'T - T 



Fig. 76. — Vertical Half Cross Section and 
Elevation of Boiler Setting. 



POWER AND TRANSMISSION 



113 



introduced. Their inclined form renders the cleaning of the fire much 
more convenient and the extreme front corner which they cut off is of little 
benefit in making steam. 

Both outside and division walls should have a two-inch air space, as 
shown. The top of the boiler should be covered with asbestos, or with a 
brick arch. If the latter, there should be a two-inch air space left between it 
and the boiler. The boilers must rest only on the supporting brackets and 
in no case on the boiler fronts. 




Fig. 77. — Horizontal Section of Boiler Setting. 

The fronts are held in place by anchor bolts f inch in diameter and 4 feet 
long, with the inner ends bent to a right angle 10 or 12 inches long. Their 
front ends are threaded for nuts coming outside of the boiler fronts, so that 
a defective or cracked portion of the front may be readily removed and replaced 
without disturbing the brickwork. 

The smoke connections from the boilers to the stack may be the same 
width all the way through, in which case its height is to be increased from the 
first to the sixth boiler to include the additional area necessary for each boiler 
as it progresses toward the stack. Thus it may be 36 inches wide and 20 
inches high at the first boiler, and increasing to 78 inches high at the sixth 
boiler. It will perhaps be more convenient to increase also the width, in order 
that the area at the large end may equal that of the stack without increasing 
the height to such an extent. 

By this method we may make the larger end 48 inches wide and 60 inches 
high. There should be a cleaning door in the end of the smoke connection 
at the first boiler, and a pivoted damper properly balanced between the sixth 
boiler and the stack. It will be convenient also to have dampers in the "up- 
take" from each boiler to the main smoke connection, so as to shut these off 
whenever a boiler is laid off for cleaning or repairs. 

The steam connections from the tops of the boilers are to be so arranged 



ii4 MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 

that any one or more of the boilers may be "cut out" and the use of all the 
others continued. All steam pipes of three inches or over should be covered 
with an efficient and lasting non-conducting material. That containing a 
large portion of asbestos will probably be found the best. 

The foundations for the boiler settings should be prepared in the same 
manner as for a machine foundation, as described in Chapter X, due con- 
sideration being given to the weight to be supported, say about 1,200 
pounds per square foot. 

The plan of boiler settings shown, that is, supporting the boiler on brackets 
attached to it, is the ordinary method. The more modern method, however, 
is to erect iron columns at each side of the boiler and upon these to lay I-beams, 
from which the boiler is suspended by iron rods, entirely clear of the brickwork, 
and with no part resting upon it. While this plan is no doubt correct in theory 
and practice, it is considerably more expensive than the method shown here- 
with and for that reason it may not receive the favor it deserves. 

The general plan and arrangement of the boiler room with the boiler 
settings, the smoke connections with the stack, the coal-delivering tram track, 
scales, etc., and the engine room, with the location of the engine and its con- 
nection with the main shaft, is shown in Fig. 78, and in so far as it relates to 
the boilers and settings it is substantially the system adopted by the Bigelow 
Company, New Haven, Conn. 

As to the engine, it seems fairly well conceded that for economy of steam 
and general efficiency in furnishing the power for machine shop work the 
horizontal, cross compound condensing engine will be the best. This type of 
engine is made by a number of well-known engine builders, and while all of 
them have certain convenient features and peculiarities of design and con- 
struction which commend them to different purchasers, it is probable that 
there is no very great difference in their efficiency or economy in the general 
results. 

The subject of gas engines has not been considered in connection with 
our plans as they do not seem suitable where a large amount of power is 
required, whatever may be their advantages in small or isolated plants, 
although gas engines have been built as large as a thousand horse-power 
that have been fairly successful. 

Prominent among the builders of steam engines of the type referred to 
above are the Allis- Chalmers Company, of Milwaukee, Wis., and the William 
A. Harris Engine Company, of Providence, R. I., and it is this type of engine 
which is illustrated and described in this article, and commended for machine 
shop use. 

The size selected may be 16 and 32 x 48 inches, or 18 and 36 x 42 inches, 
with a balance wheel 18 feet in diameter with a 36-inch face, and capable of 



POWER AND TRANSMISSION 



US 



generating 400 horse-power at 80 revolutions per minute, and steam at 125 
pounds pressure. 

It will be proper to consider whether to drive direct from the engine to 
the machines by means of shafting and belts, or whether the engine shall drive 
dynamos, from which the electric current may be transmitted by proper 




Fig. 78.— General Plan of the Power Plant. 

conductors to motors, which in turn may drive main lines of shafting, or to 
a number of motors located in different parts of the works, driving short lines 
of shafting operating groups of machines, or again, whether we shall place a 
small motor upon each individual machine to drive it. 

All of these methods have their peculiar advantages and necessarily their 



n6 MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 

disadvantages, corresponding to the conditions, the positions of the machines 
to be operated and the duty that is to be performed. Again, we may profitably 
make use of compressed air for some of our work, as for instance, for drawing 
patterns, turning flasks and other portions of the lighter work of the iron 
foundry, as well as for the chipping room where hand chipping tools so operated 
are very convenient and useful. 

Hammers operated by compressed air may be used in the forge shop, 
since this force may be transmitted long distances with practically no loss 
such as steam is subjected to by condensation, and electricity by loss of electro- 
motive force. 

Various operations in the machine shop also may render a supply of 
compressed air very desirable. This matter will be governed to a considerable 
extent by the kind of work to be done, or kind of machinery to be built. 

It would seem best in theory as well as practice, and most efficient and 
economical, to avail ourselves of whatever good points each method possesses 
for the particular case in question, and, by using any of the different systems 
where the conditions are most favorable for its employment, to make the most 
of the useful and practical features and avoid as many of the difficulties and 
disadvantages as we may be able. 

For instance, while the practice of driving individual machines by separate 
motors may be said to be yet in its infancy, enough has been already done to 
prove its advisability in many ways, and to show that planers from 40 inches 
upwards may be profitably driven in this manner. 

The same may be said of lathes from say 36 inches upwards, and also of 
the larger radial drills, vertical milling machines, boring mills, and, in fact, 
of most of the heavy machine shop tools. At the same time it does not appear 
to be as efficient or practical to apply individual motors to small machines 
when a group of them may be conveniently driven from a short line shaft 
run by one motor. The more recent improvements in motors, however, 
have adapted them to their economical use on much smaller machines even 
when a slow speed is required. 

The question of friction of the two systems of transmitting power, that is, 
from the engine by shafting and belting, or the loss of power by generating 
an electric current with which to drive motors, is one which has provoked 
much discussion. Probably it will be found in practice to be about as follows: 
Where the distance is short, shafting and pulleys are much the more economical. 
For distances of two or three hundred feet there will be little difference in the 
two systems. For much greater distances the advantages are in favor of the 
electric method. 

The plan of power transmission here selected is to drive from the balance 
wheel of the engine to a 72-inch pulley on the main line of shafting, giving a 



POWER AND TRANSMISSION 117 

shaft speed of 240 revolutions per minute. This shaft is in lengths of 20 feet, 
supported by hangers every 10 feet, and with a hanger on each side of main 
driving pulleys. The three lengths in the center are 5 inches in diameter 
and the remaining portion each way from these three lengths is 3J inches in 
diameter to the end. 

Cut-off couplings are provided on the main shaft at the points shown in 
the drawings, for the purpose of stopping either section of the shaft in case 
of accident. In the same manner, the shaft in the gallery over the main line 
has a cut-off coupling at each end of the section, upon which the main pulley 
is located. 

The smaller sizes of shafting are now usually made on the odd sixteenth 
of an inch diameter, but the even sizes are here given for convenience. The 
shafts are provided with roller bearings, and all pulleys with the exception 
of the large main driving pulleys are of the pressed sheet steel form, as 
being the lightest pulley made for strength, convenience, and transmission 
of power. 

From the end of the main shaft toward the front of the building, power 
is taken for the machines in the tool room. From near the center, power is 
carried by a vertical belt to the gallery floor above. This shaft is 3 J inches 
in diameter for the central 20-foot length and the remainder is 3 inches in 
diameter. Upon the central length, as well as on the main line below, are 
pulleys 48 inches in diameter and 14 inches face. The central length is 
supported by four hangers — one at each end, and one on each side of the 
main pulley. 

In all cases the couplings are to be placed on the side of the hanger away 
from the source of power, so as to be secure in case of the failure of a coupling. 

The dynamos for lighting as well as those for driving the motors may be 
located in the engine room and driven by belts from the main line by friction 
pulleys, or they may be located under the main line shafting. 

It should be remembered that for a belt of high velocity it will be much 
better to run it horizontally than vertically, and that it will transmit much 
more power under the former condition. If it is desired to locate the dynamos 
in the engine room and run them by horizontal belts, a countershaft may be 
located near the floor, just inside the engine room and driven by a belt from 
the main line. 

An independent engine may be used to drive the motors. In this case 
the power of the main engine would be considerably reduced. The main line 
shaft furnishes power for all machines on that side of the main floor. 

The machines on the opposite side of the main floor may be those which 
it is desired to drive by individual motors, while in the gallery above, the line 
shaft, in say three or four sections, may be driven by suitable motors. 



n8 MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 

The same method may be desirable in the pattern shop and also in the 
tool room, if preferred, although it is more adaptable in the pattern shop 
where power is not used continuously. 

The power for driving the machines in the carpenter shop may be trans- 
mitted by belt from the main line through a belt box occupying the space 
between the machine shop and the carpenter shop to the line shaft in the latter. 
Or, a motor may be located in the carpenter shop. 

If a steam hammer is used in the forge shop the steam supply should be 
carried in a pipe passing through an underground brick conduit, as carrying 
it around through the machine shop and carpenter shop would necessitate a 
long line of piping. 

A motor will be most convenient for operating the blast fan, drop hammers, 
cutting-off machines, power hack saws, etc. 

For the foundry, steam may be carried under ground, across the yard in 
a brick conduit, as the most direct way, to the engine running the heating 
apparatus, and another for the cupola blower and the tumbling barrels. 
Here again motors will be very convenient, as one may be directly connected 
to the heating apparatus fan and another used for the cupola blower and the 
tumbling barrels, as well as to run the elevator which supplies the cupola 
platform with its fuel and stock. 

The boilers, and at least all pipes over ij inches in diameter, conveying 
live steam, should be protected with a good non-conducting covering. Prob- 
ably the best preparation for this purpose is a mixture of carbonate of magnesia 
and asbestos, only a sufficient quantity of the latter being used as a bond, to 
hold the mixture together. The proportions may be, eight parts of magnesia 
and two parts of asbestos, with a sufficient quantity of water to form a plastic 
mass. 

The thickness of this covering will depend on the amount of exposure to 
cold air to which the boilers or steam pipes are subjected. From one to two 
inches is ordinarily used, according to circumstances. 



CHAPTER XV 

SOME CONCLUDING REMARKS 

The choice of ground for manufacturing plants. Important requisites. High fixed expenses 
of city locations. The quality of ground. Hard gravel the best. Drainage. Sewerage 
system. Grading the yards. Catch basins. Conductor piper and sewer connections. 
Makeshift devices. Cobblestone pavements. Foundation protection. Yard areas. 
Water-ways. Covering catch basins. Capacity of catch basins. General observations. 

Before concluding this subject there are some remarks of a more or less 
general nature which seem proper to make here rather than in any of the 
preceding chapters, as they have each been assigned to a specific division of 
the subject, and the effort has been made to confine them to that portion of 
the question as nearly as may be, without restricting their scope within too 
narrow boundaries for practical use, and the consideration of practical men. 

The choice of the ground upon which to erect manufacturing buildings 
is one which should receive mature consideration for a number of important 
reasons, and in this respect the following are some of the more obvious ones 
which should claim earnest attention. The ground chosen for the proposed 
plant should be situated near enough to a railroad so that a spur track may 
be laid to the works, for convenience of bringing in coal, iron, lumber, and 
similar stock, as well as for shipping the product of the shops. This is a 
matter of all the more importance if heavy machinery is to be built, as the 
unnecessary handling of such products entails an ever present expense, which, 
in the case of having the convenience of a branch track to the works is prac- 
tically met by the first cost of laying the track. 

The ground selected should not be in the populous section of a town or 
city for several reasons, among which are: the high rate of taxation, the con- 
tinual expense of obtaining a proper water supply, and the largely increased 
cost of the real estate necessary for the purpose. One manufacturing plant 
in a city of moderate size is now paying annually the exorbitant sum of forty- 
five dollars per employee for taxes, and three dollars per employee for a 
water supply. In the outskirts of a city of the same size and advantages, the 
rate of taxation would be reduced to less than five dollars, and the water supply, 
if the plant is near a natural water-way, would be practically nominal. And 

n 9 



120 MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 

if not near a natural supply of water, it may be obtained in abundance by 
boring, or by driving wells, the first cost of which will practically end the 
expense. 

Obviously, the buildings should not be erected on low ground, where the 
health of the employees may be endangered by inefficient drainage. Such 
land is not only unfit for the erection of manufacturing buildings, for the 
reasons given above, but low ground is liable to be of such a soft and yielding 
nature as to render foundations expensive and uncertain, particularly if the 
building is to be a heavy one, or if much heavy machinery requiring masonry 
foundations is to be used. 

Buildings should not be erected on alluvial soil if it is possible to locate 
on land of a more substantial nature, for the above reason, and in consideration 
of the health of the employees. 

The land should be of hard gravel, as being the best quality for the pur- 
pose, as strong foundations may be economically built, and the surface water 
is readily absorbed in places where it is inexpedient to drain it away. Rocky 
and clay land will, of course, offer a good bed for foundations, as the solid 
rocks may be built around and upon and the clay is very apt to be underlaid 
by a good "hard pan" of compact gravel which is an excellent bed for the 
same purpose. In building upon rocks, care must be taken to have all resting 
places for the foundation level, and if the original surface is not so, it must 
be chipped out, or cut to a level surface, or to several step-like horizontal 
surfaces, before any stone or brickwork is laid upon it. 

As a matter of convenient drainage the ground should be high enough 
from some proper point where sewerage waste may be discharged to admit 
of a proper incline to the sewer and its connecting pipes. This is assuming, 
of course, that the plant is provided with its own sewerage system, as will 
necessarily be the case if it is outside of city limits, or in a country town where 
it is not within reach of the public sewers. 

In planning a sewerage system the surface water of the yards must be 
properly taken care of. In grading the yards they should incline slightly 
toward some convenient point, as much out of the way of the passage of 
teams as possible, where a catch basin with a water seal trap may receive 
all of the surface water and still cut off sewer gas, and where convenient 
connection may be made with the sewer system. 

Preferably, such catch basins and the connections from the roof water 
flow, or a good portion of it, should be furthest from the sewer outlet, and 
the connections from the wash rooms and water-closets enter the sewer at 
intermediate points, as this will provide for automatically flushing these 
connections at every rain storm. Conductor pipes from the roofs should lead 
directly to the sewers, rather than to pour the water out upon the ground, as 



SOME CONCLUDING REMARKS 121 

in the latter case the conductor pipes will continually freeze up in winter 
while in the former case the warm air from the sewer will always keep them 
clear even in the most inclement weather. A makeshift for keeping ice out 
of conductor pipes is to run a jet of steam into them near the ground. This 
does not always keep them clear and the tendency of the steam in cold pipes 
is to condense and the warm water thus produced soon rusts out the pipes, 
causing a frequent outlay for repairs, as well as the cost of the steam supply ; 
while connecting them directly with the sewers, the first cost is the only one 
except the usual and unavoidable wear of the pipes. 

Certain areas about the yards will need paving, as, for instance, the 
driveways, the space around the catch basins, protecting strips around the 
foundations of the buildings, and in similar places. Very hard tar concrete 
makes an excellent driveway, unless it be used for very heavy trucking where 
the horses are liable to slip, particularly in wet weather. To avoid this a 
brick pavement, constructed with brick set on edge and the courses arranged 
at right angles to the line of the driveway, will be found an excellent surface. 
The bricks should be the regular hard paving bricks such as used in street 
paving, and laid by men who are expert workmen at this class of paving, to 
insure success. 

Cobble stone pavements are more economical and are very durable, but 
not as neat in appearance or as agreeable when we must walk over them 
frequently. 

The protecting strips around the foundations of the buildings should be 
of the ordinary tar concrete such as is used for sidewalks, and should be not 
less than two feet wide and incline away from the building not less than an 
inch to the foot. 

For large areas of yard space the ground should be brought nearly up 
to the desired grade and then covered with fine gravel, or fine cinders, rolled 
down hard. It may be rendered more firm by the addition of fine, dry clay, 
which, when sprinkled lightly with water and then rolled down, will form a 
"bond" to hold the cinders together. Another method, where cast iron chips 
from lathes and planers are plenty and cheap, is to sprinkle these evenly 
over the fine gravel, mix the two together with a hand rake, then roll down 
hard. Then sprinkle with water, and the rusting of the iron chips will in a 
little time form, with the gravel, a hard, compact mass. If this has been laid 
to the depth of even two inches, in a proportion of equal parts of iron chips 
and fine gravel, and allowed to lie without disturbing for a month or so, sub- 
ject to rains, or occasional sprinkling, it will make a very satisfactory yard 
surface for any use except heavy trucking. 

Around catch basins, tar concrete should be laid for a distance of five to 
ten feet in all directions. 



122 MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION 

Where the grounds are large and the crossing of specially prepared 
driveways interfere with the grading to induce a flow of surface water to the 
catch basin, a small water-way should be provided under it at proper intervals. 
This may be built of bricks, but still better, with a brick floor and an arch 
composed of an inverted U-shaped section, or sections, of cast iron an inch 
and a quarter thick. Ordinarily the space need not be over six inches high 
and eight to twelve inches wide. This form will be less liable to injury bv 
driving over it ; it will not be subject to displacement as if built of bricks, and 
may be more readily cleaned of ice and snow in winter. 

Catch basins should be covered with slisjhtlv arched cast iron ffratinsjs. 
the purpose of the arching being to prevent it from being easily clogged by 
bits of rubbish which may be washed to it by a heavy and sudden downpour 
of rain. Catch basins should be constructed of such dimensions that they 
need be cleaned out but twice a year, although by building them of double 
the capacity they may be only cleaned once a year, which had better be done 
in the summer or early autumn, before cold weather comes on. as a more 
convenient time than in the spring when snow is melting, the frost coming 
out of the ground, and the work becoming more disagreeable. As to the 
capacity of these catch basins, they should contain, up to the top of the bridge- 
wall, about one cubic foot to every hundred square feet of yard surface to be 
drained. This will be amply sufficient for annual cleaning. 

These observations are intended to be practical. They are the result of 
experience as well as observation, and the more care and consideration that 
is given to the few matters to which attention is directed in this chapter, 
the less we shall be annoyed by the incidental and usually considered acci- 
dental expenses that so frequently cause much unexpected trouble and 
outlay in the regular course of the management of manufacturing plants. 






PART SECOND 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 



CHAPTER XVI 

MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 

General features. The special scope of this portion of the work. The usual errors. A 
practical view of the subject. General requisites. Proper equipment for a medium 
class of work. A definite and comprehensive plan for manufacturing operations. 
The results of a lack of a proper plan. The business that "ought to pay" but does not. 
Too much conservatism. Seeing the end from the beginning. The only proper plan. 
Possible enlargements must be provided for. The "piecemeal" plan. Ill-considered 
and expensive alterations. The last state worse than the first. Better to make new 
things than patch up old ones. A complete and symmetrical whole. 

In the preceding chapters of this work, constituting Part First and under 
the general heading of Machine Shop Construction, we have carefully followed, 
step by step, the process of planning and erecting a modern machine shop 
plant, giving special attention to all its parts, discussing the various plans and 
methods of construction, and describing the most approved forms of founda- 
tions, walls, roofs, floors, etc., and properly providing for the prime necessities 
of light, heat, ventilation, and power. 

We have given special attention to the requirements of manufacturing 
operations and so planned the entire plant as to bring its component parts 
into a proper relation to each other, even when confined to a very limited 
land space upon which to build. 

Ample provision has been made for all probable extensions and enlarge- 
ments in the future that may be due to the possible increase of the business 
for which the plant is erected. 

There has been provided a simple and efficient means for the transpor- 
tation of stock and material and the convenient handling of the same during 
the successive processes of manufacture. 

Some of the various mistakes and difficulties into which the builder is 
liable to fall by inconsiderate planning and execution of his work have been 
pointed out and commented upon. 

The endeavor has been made to lay all these matters before the prospective 
builder and the careful and studious reader as some of the results of years of 
practical experience, constant and conscientious study, and ample observation 
of the varied and complex phases of this interesting subject. 

125 



126 MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 

Having thus carried forward the construction of the machine shop build- 
ings of the model plant to completion, and having them adequately provided 
with power, light, heat, and ventilation, and thus ready for the next step in 
the process of making them ready for active and effective work, we will proceed 
with the duty of describing and illustrating their equipment with the proper 
machinery, tools, and appliances for accomplishing the contemplated work to 
be done. Machines should be so arranged in groups or departments as to 
best subserve the purpose intended, and to manufacture the product with the 
least cost for handling the materials in the various stages of their progress 
toward the completed product, and with the most efficient arrangement for 
supervising the work, and still to insure the desired standard of accuracy, 
finish, and thoroughness of the completed output. 

In considering the question of the proper equipment of a machine shop 
a great deal depends upon the character of the product which is to be turned 
out. It may be that of heavy machinery requiring little or no machining 
except of surfaces in contact, as is the case with such work as sugar mill 
machinery, rolling mill work and similar product which will necessitate heavy 
castings and consequently a large proportion of machines for heavy planing, 
boring, drilling, tapping, and so on, as well as large erecting space and much 
use of the traveling crane and other forms of lifting devices. 

Again, it may be of a generally lighter kind of work, as for instance, 
steam engines of various sizes and similar work where much more finish as 
well as very accurate fitting is required. Or, it may be of machine tools, the 
larger of which will be similar to the engine work in many respects, while the 
smaller machines will require a large variety of machines both for general 
and special work and such as are capable of producing a large quantity of 
very accurate work even on rather large parts. 

The design and aim of this portion of our work is not to arrange and 
specify such an equipment as may be required for any certain kind or class 
of manufacture, or for any special line of sizes of machines, for that is mani- 
festly impractical, but rather to suggest the proper selection and arrangement 
of the machines for a medium kind of work, on a practical plan which may 
be useful to those having charge of this class of mechanical engineering and 
be helpful in pointing out such machines as will be most economical in the 
production of certain classes of work in the more modern and up-to-date 
methods, and so grouping and arranging them as to make their management 
easy, practical, and profitable. 

In this connection it will not only be proper to offer some suggestions as 
to the class or type of machines best adapted for certain kinds of work, but 
also as to the methods of testing such machines to ascertain their fitness for 
the work to be done on them. 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 127 

These requirements become all the more imperative since the demand is 
more and more pronounced for machines of higher speed, greater strength, 
and consequently capable of a largely increased output, as well as for machines 
whose parts may be rapidly changed to adapt them to a large variety of work. 
To this is added the demand for greater accuracy, better fitting, a superior 
quality of stock in their make-up, a more carefully considered design, and 
a generally finer finish. 

In all the operations of manufacturing, from the very conception of the 
idea that we will manufacture, to the final marketing of the product, if we 
are to expect success, either in the building, the equipping, or the management 
of the manufacturing operations of such a varied and complex nature, we 
must first of all have a well-conceived, well-matured, definite and compre- 
hensive plan. If this is not so we shall find the various component parts of 
our fabric disproportioned to each other. One will be of too great capacity 
and another of too little; one portion will be an unnecessary expense which 
will absorb the profits of another ; one will be pushed while another is neglected ; 
and so on until the whole establishment is in such a disjointed, disproportioned, 
and inefficient condition that success either mechanically or financially is 
impossible. 

This is very forcibly shown in cases where a business that " ought to pay" 
seems to drift along from year to year with scarcely any advance in methods 
or profits to its owners. Another man takes charge and perhaps astonishes 
every one by his seeming extravagance, but gradually order comes out of 
chaos, the expenses which at first staggered the good old conservative directors 
begins to tell, and in due time everything is in proper condition, every portion 
of the concern does its allotted part, each in harmony with the others, every- 
body is cheerful and satisfied, better work is produced, and the stockholders 
are getting their dividends. Why? Simply that the man is master of the 
business and works with a well-conceived plan. He knew from the beginning 
just what would be the result; he was not afraid to make radical changes; 
there was no patchwork about it. Every portion of his plan was carried out 
in its entirety. Two different parts do not make a complete whole, and to 
have several plans in mind and then attempt to carry out a portion of each 
is but to invite failure. And the invitation is usually accepted. 

This is also true even in regard to minor operations in the same line. 
We must get such a grasp of the complete idea and plan in all its details that 
"from the beginning we can see the end." 

One of our most successful designers of machinery always seemed to be 
a good deal of a laggard during the first stages of a new design and would 
draw and sketch and measure in what seemed a very desultory sort of a way. 
When remonstrated with for what "the boss" thought was wasting time, he 



128 MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 

used to say, "I don't want to make my drawing until I can shut my eyes and 
see the machine working." The complete conception of the design as it 
gradually forms in the mind is what is needed. And when the man had the 
ability to thus "see through" the whole design, the " working up" of the 
various component parts was to a great extent a matter of mechanical detail 
only. 

So it is, or should be, in planning manufacturing operations. We must 
see the end from the beginning. This applies with peculiar force in the alter- 
ations of, or additions to plants already in existence, whether it be the changing 
on account of a different product to be manufactured, or of enlarging so as 
to increase the product. The plan should be comprehensive and provide for 
possible enlargements in the future, so that as each successive change is made 
we get nearer and nearer to the ideal of a completed structure that will be a 
credit and not a continual " eye-sore." Not only in appearance is this the 
proper method, but in the utility of the improvements made, and this again 
in proportion to the expense incurred. 

If any " piecemeal" plan is adopted from time to time the result will be 
not only a failure to get the greatest accommodation out of the improvement, 
but to do so at an expense which is frequently lost by subsequent alterations 
of such a nature as to compel us to tear down a portion of the former work. 

And this process is repeated again and again until the expense of successive 
changes, additions, and alterations will have cost more than to have built the 
whole structure new. Beside this we have a mongrel structure in which 
"the last state is worse than the first." It is frequently better to make new 
things than to patch up old ones; ofttimes it is cheaper also. And this lesson 
may be followed through all the operations of manufacturing with good results 
to the reputation of the man who is responsible for the plans as well as the 
success of the establishment and the dividends to the stockholders. 

It was from considerations such as these that in the second chapter, on 
Construction, it was pointed out how the capacity of our manufacturing plant 
might be economically increased and at the same time work along the same 
general lines so that the enlarged structure would be but an extension or 
expansion of the original plan and the whole structure become as complete 
and symmetrical in all its proportions as if it were built at one time and from 
a complete set of plans from one well considered design. 



CHAPTER XVII 

PLANNING THE DIFFERENT DEPARTMENTS 

Location and arrangement of the departments. The routine of passing the work through 
the several departments. The planing department. The drilling and boring depart- 
ment. The heavy turning department. The milling and gear-cutting department. 
The small parts department. The grinding department. The polishing department. 
The small parts assembling department. The small parts storeroom. The experi- 
mental department. The foremen's offices. 

Let us next proceed to lay out and plan for the different departments 
that may be necessary to carry out our manufacturing work, bearing in mind 
that much will depend on their proper location with reference to the buildings 
outside the machine shop proper, particularly the iron foundry, as well as 
their proper relation to each other. 

In planning the relative location of the different departments of our 
machine shop in which are placed the several classes of machines it is necessary 
to so arrange them that when once the material, as iron castings or other 
heavy stock, comes into the shop, it shall pass in as nearly as may be a con- 
tinuous line through the shop from its rough state to its place in the erection 
of the machines to be built, with little or no ''retrograde movement" or other 
unnecessary handling or similar expense. Light and easily handled stock is 
not subject to these conditions to such an extent, and may be handled on the 
upper floors as its transportation from place to place is easily effected by the 
tram cars, trucks, etc., on the level, and these run upon elevators, and carried 
to the various floors where they are needed for the different operations upon 
them, or to a finished parts storeroom, where they may be kept until they are 
wanted for the assembling of a complete machine. In our case, however, 
having but two floors, quantities of small work may be packed in trucks, cars, 
or boxes and from the front gallery lowered to the ground floor by the traveling 
crane. In the same way stock or finished parts may be brought up to the 
gallery floors. 

The plans accompanying this article, Fig. 79 show the ground floor and 
Fig. 80 the gallery floors, with the location of all the machines selected to equip 
the shop arranged as is thought best for the easy handling of the stock and the 

129 



i3° 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 



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PLANNING THE DIFFERENT DEPARTMENTS 131 

convenient performance of all the necessary work of machining, erecting, and 
shipping. The machines arc all shown drawn to scale, and with sufficient 
space around them for readily handling the stock and the machined parts. 

The main floor is divided into five departments, namely, the Planing, 
Drilling and Boring, Heavy Turning, Milling and Gear Cutting, and the 
Erecting Departments, all located as shown on the plan. 

Usually the first operation on nearly all castings and on many forgings 
is that of planing, this being particularly so with the heavier stock. Con- 
sequently it is advisable to locate the planing department near where this 
class of stock can be the most readily received into the shop from the foundry 
or from the forge shop. As by far the larger amount comes from the foundry 
the point nearest that department is where the planers should be located, so 
as to save distance in conveying material, and consequent expense. Our 
tram track leading from the foundry to the machine shop brings castings to 
a point nearly under the traveling crane (by which they are readily placed 
upon the planers on each side of it), or directly under it, by which it conven- 
iently serves the large planers located in the erecting space just inside the row 
of columns. 

An overhead trolley delivers castings to the other planers in the row 
arranged at right angles to the shop as they are taken from the foundry cars, 
or carries them, when planed, to the tram track and thence by the traveling 
crane to any part of the shop where they may be needed, generally to the tram 
track laid through the drilling and boring department, or to the large machines 
of this class located within the reach of the traveling crane inside of the columns. 
This overhead trolley may be operated by hand hoists, or by compressed air, 
but preferably it should be of the type carrying a small electric motor by which 
it is very quickly, efficiently, and conveniently operated. There should be at 
least two of these hoists on the trolley track, which should extend from the 
front end of the shop down to and over the tram track in the drilling and 
boring department. 

It should be explained that in laying out the positions of the planers the 
outline shown includes the extreme run of the planer table, hence there is 
more space at the ends than would appear at first glance. In locating the 
planers with reference to each other they are placed at equal distances of five 
feet between tables without regard to the front or back, so as to give free access 
to both sides when the operator is putting on, setting, or removing work. 
Those of the larger planers are located parallel with the length of the shop. 
It will be best to drive these with electric motors. The other planers, of such 
sizes as will accommodate the usual variety of work, are located according to 
the space available. 

Much of the medium sized work may be done on long planers very 



132 MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 

economically by hllins; the table with as manv parts as it will hold, and running 
through the lot with a long cut, as for instance, with lathe heads or carriages, 
winch may be planed in lots of ten to fifteen much cheaper than a less number 
on a short planer. The two planers near the wash room are convenient for 
comparatively large work where a short table is required. The other planers 
are arranged in pairs facing each other so as to be convenient for one man to 
run two planers. One man can easily run the 6o-inch and the 72-inch planers. 

In connection with the planers are located the shapers and the slotters, 
as shown in the plan. These are also served by the overhead trolley as noted 
above, and work from them or from the planers may be thus conveniently 
moved to the drilling and boring department unless the parts are so large as 
to make the traveling crane necessary. 

Xext in the order of work is usually that of boring, either in vertical 
boring mills, horizontal boring machines, radial drills, etc. Therefore this 
class of machines will naturally come next to the planers, and on the same 
side of the shop, in the drilling and boring department. The vertical boring 
machines are of the usual type in which much of the large work, such as pulleys, 
balance wheels, and many other heavy parts, are much more readily handled 
than upon a lathe. The horizontal boring machines are those with the low, 
traversing table, and elevating head and tail stocks, while the horizontal 
boring and drilling machines are those with a stationary head and an outer 
support for the boring bar, and a vertically adjustable table supported by 
two vertical screws. The first is adapted to heavy work, while the latter 
handles that of medium weight. 

The so-called railroad 'suspension drill is one provided with a perfectly 
level track upon which long beds, as lathe beds, may be supported on rollers 
and run to any desired point in their length for drilling and tapping. As- 
suming that there will be hollow spindles required, two spindle boring ma- 
chines are provided. These may be of the horizontal cylinder type for the 
purpose of feeding, where only one tool is used, or with a heavy turret and 
slide when more than one tool is required. Two gang drills are provided for 
jig work where medium or small sized holes are needed. Xext to the wall 
is a row of ordinary upright drills of the capacity indicated. Where necessary, 
small jib cranes should be attached to the columns for use at individual 
machines, or for a pair of machines. 

The Heavy Turning Department, on the opposite side of the shop and at 
the front end, contains all lathes of 28-inch swing and upwards. Also the 
heavy turret lathes for cast iron work and the larger parts of steel or other 
material. Here are also the vertical chucking machines, which are in many 
- s to be preferred to those of horizontal type. The lathes of 38-inch 
swing and upwards are placed inside of the row of columns so as to be served 




PLANNING THE DIFFERENT DEPARTMENTS 133 

by the traveling crane. Nevertheless, small jib cranes attached to the columns 
and operated by hand will be found very useful for a number of the other 
machines. 

The cone-turning machine should be arranged to turn and crown all the 
steps of a cone at once. This and the pulley-turning machine are located 
convenient to the vertical chucking machines. Two shafting lathes of 28-inch 
swing and 44-feet beds are provided. In locating the lathes a space of four feet 
is left between the ends so as to give free access to any part of the room. Ma- 
terial is brought in on the tram track, one end of which extends out under 
the traveling crane. The heavy turret lathes and the vertical chucking 
machines will handle much of the work frequently done in the engine lathes 
and do it much quicker, thereby saving the number of the latter to be set up. 

Next in order is the Milling and Gear-Cutting Department. Here sur- 
face milling machines are provided for large surfaces, while smaller surfaces 
are taken care of by the six plain, or Lincoln millers. Two universal millers 
do the more complicated work and a small lathe is put in as a convenient 
machine to save going to another department for small and simple jobs of 
turning. The five vertical millers will do a large quantity of work very 
accurately and at better advantage than planers could do it, and at the same 
time at a much less cost for labor, as is the usual result with milling machine 
work. 

Six gear cutters are provided for spur gears, and two for bevel gears, 
while a special gear shaper and a gear planer will do the work required to be 
particularly accurate. Four rack cutters will usually be a proper proportion 
to the above. While the cutters for these machines are made in the general 
tool room, two grinders are provided so as to keep them in order in the de- 
partment where they are used. A convenient extension of the rear tram track 
furnishes means to bring in and take out work. 

The gallery floors are divided into six departments, namely, Small Parts, 
Grinding, Polishing, Small Parts Assembling, Small Parts Store, and Experi- 
mental Departments. A tram track connects them all, passing through the 
cross gallery at the front end, under a traveling crane, by which any machine, 
car, truck, or lot of stock may be quickly transferred to or from the main or 
ground floor. 

The Small Parts Department is the largest of the six and contains six 
turret lathes for making steel work from the bar, and four automatic screw 
machines for smaller work and for such special screws as may be made in the 
shop more economically than they can be purchased. A line of engine lathes 
of the sizes given on the plan handle such small work as requires to be turned 
on centers. Long lathes for turning and threading leadscrews and similar 
work are provided, as is also a machine with a traveling head for milling the 



154 MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 

splines in Ions: rods or screws, and two small key-seating; machines for milling 
semicircular key seats. Racks for bar stock are provided in the front gallery 
and near the screw lathes for stock and for finished work. 

The Grinding Department and the Polishing Department are for obvious 
reasons placed as far from the other work as possible. Much of the cylindrical 
work is sent to the grinding room to be reduced to perfectly cylindrical form 
on wet grinders and does not require any polishing finish. For this work 
three large, two medium, and eight small grinders are provided. One large 
and two small dry surface grinders are arranged to take such small parts as 
require this treatment. 

The Polishing Department as now known in connection with a machine 
shop is somewhat new in this class of machine work, but its importance and 
efficiency is becoming more recognized as its usefulness is being demonstrated. 
Four disk grinders or polishers are provided for small or medium sized flat 
surfaces, and work direct from the planers is quickly polished to a fine n:::s h 
and quite true. Three speed lathes are expected to do all the small cylin- 
irical work that has not been ground. 

Work requiring a bright buffed finish is taken to the four buffers, while 
irregularly shaped parts are polished on the three polishing heads or on the 
two belt or strapping machines. This room, of course, enclosed as tightly 
as possible to avoid the difficulty of floating particles, or grinder's dust pass:::;; 
to the other departments. Xearly all of this trouble may be prevented by a 
small exhaust fan connected with hoods at each of the machines by a suitable 
main pipe and branches, by which the dust is discharged in the open air. or 
a proper receptacle. This has the additional advantage of saving the eyes of 
the workmen from much annoyance and discomfort. 

Small parts when completed are taken to the Finished Parts Storeroom, 
which is located in the front end of the shop and furnished with shelves ar- 
ranged in alcoves on one side of the room, while the opposite side is reserved 
for somewhat larger parts, or collections of parts, as may be necessary. This 
space should be fitted up to suit the particular kind of work, and may be in 
broad shelves running lengthwise of the room, or in alcoves as on the opposite 
side. 

Between this room and the grinding department is the Small Parts As- 
sembling Department, in which it is intended to assemble groups of small 
parts, as for instance, the parts comprising the apron of a lathe, or similar 
work. If the parts are accurately made no machine work will be here needed, 
although a small ensdne lathe mi°:ht be a convenience at times. Bench vises 
and the usual assembling ''jacks" comprise most of the necessary fittings. 

In the back end of the opposite gallery is located the Experimental 
Department, where small and medium sized experimental work is to be done. 



PLANNING THE DIFFERENT DEPARTMENTS 135 

It contains, as will be seen in the plans, a variety of machines suitable for 
experimental work, so as to render it unnecessary to go to any of the other 
departments for anything except large turning, planing, and gear cutting. 
Such a department is a necessity to a shop aiming at making progress and 
keeping up with the times, as work of this character costs too much if done 
in the regular tool room, and it is not only an awkward but expensive matter 
to place it in any other department. 

Along the front of each gallery is an iron railing 32 inches high, that on 
the front end gallery having an easily removable section 12 feet in length, 
for convenience in passing work to and from the gallery by the traveling crane. 

The Foremen's Offices, the Tool-Distributing and the Finished Parts 
Storeroom are sheathed up with f-inch pine to the height of 44 inches, 
above which it is enclosed with wire netting of i-inch mesh and 4 feet in width. 
This form of construction affords an ample enclosure and does not materially 
impede the light. The doors should be provided with spring locks, and 
workmen generally not allowed in these enclosures except by permission. 
This is one of the necessary measures of good discipline, and one that foremen 
should always insist upon, without favoritism. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

I JDIPBCENT OF THE TOOL ROOM AXD THE TOOL STOREROOM 

First die machine, then the tools for use in the machine. Proper arrangements for keeping 
tools. The office building. The offices described. The tool-making department. 
Its location. Its equipment. The foreman's office. The tool storeroom. Its arrange- 
ment. Arbor rack. Double rack for drills, reamers, etc. Wide tool shelves. The 
care of files and the proper arrangement of such stock. Pigeon hole arrangement for 
drill rods, short bar stock, brass tubing, etc. Tool carriers. Their use and necessity. 
Horizontal system. Vertical system. The overhead system. The mechanism. The 
carriers. The operation. The mechanism of the vertical system. Simplicity of the 
- stem. The use of distinctive color- Automatic dumping carriers. Speed of this 
-rem. Bins for rough stock, or small castings. Keeping various kinds of stock. 
Purchased parts storeroom. Its purpose and use. Articles kept in it. Arrangement 
of articles. Desks. Bunding stock bins. Painting storerooms. 

In the previous chapter we considered in detail the machine tool equip- 
ment necessary in the various departments of the machine shop, and the loca- 
tion of the machines in each group or department, all arranged for convenient 
supervision and for the ready handling of the stock and the finished parts. 

In that article the machines in which the work was to be done were con- 
sidered. In this article it is proposed to consider the tools for use in these 
machines, including a department for making them and proper arrangements 
for their care, such as providing a place for their safe keeping and regular 
issue to the shop. It is also proposed to consider, in connection with the 
storeroom for tools, the arrangement of the storerooms for the smaller kinds 
of rough stock, and such purchased parts as are received complete from 
outside dealers or manufacturers. This plan leads us into the office portion 
of the building, and consequently a brief explanation of this part of the estab- 
lishment does not seem out of place, inasmuch as it is, in a purely manufac- 
turing plant, so intimately connected with all the machine shop operations, 
rather than partaking of the commercial side of the marketing of the product. 

The large engraving cut, Fig. Si, accompanying this chapter, is a plan 
of the front portion of the machine shop building, showing the relative location 
of the offices, tool-making department, storerooms, etc., and the essential 
parts of their internal arrangements 

136 



EQUIPMENT OF TOOL ROOM AND TOOL STOREROOM 137 




138 MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 

The main entrance to the office part of the buildings is through wide 
double doors from a large porch and opening into a public space in the portion 
devoted to office arrangements. The divisions of this portion of the building 
are clearly shown in the drawings. Upon the outer side are located the super- 
intendent's public and private offices, between which is the stairway leading 
to the drawing room above, and the necessary toilet conveniences. The 
public space is separated from the large central space of the general office by 
a railing, doors opening from both these into the superintendent's public 
office. 

The bookkeepers' desks are so arranged that a cashier's window opens 
into the public space. The timekeeper's desk is surrounded by wire netting, 
secluding his work from the general work of the office. A door leads into the 
gateway space, across the large platform scales and into the tool room portion 
of the building opposite. At one side of this door and as far away from the 
general work as may be is the telephone booth. A wide hall leads from the 
central space to the machine shop proper, and divides the private office from 
the purchased parts storeroom. This latter is so placed because the purchase, 
receipt, and issue of such stock is more intimately connected with the office 
work than that of the rooms in the opposite side of the building. 

The tool-making department is purposely placed away from the general 
machine shop, as a too intimate connection with it does not seem desirable in 
practice, while it should be convenient to the drawing room and the pattern 
shop, which may be reached by the stairs next to the rough stock room, as 
shown. It occupies the entire front of this square, front structure and is 
provided with a variety of machines rendered necessary for the making of 
modern tools and fixtures for properly machining small or medium sized parts. 
The character of each of these machines is indicated on the drawing. It is 
also provided with the grinding machines for grinding such tools as lathe 
tools, planer tools, twist drills, etc. 

It will be noticed that in providing the machine tools for making jigs and 
fixtures particular attention is paid to grinding facilities, since these are in 
many cases the best adapted to such accurate work, both as to producing good 
work and to doing it economically. Large pieces of heavy fixtures may, of 
course, have to be planed in the planing department, but these cases will 
seldom occur. The tempering of tools will best be done in the forge shop, 
the tools being sent there in quantities when possible, rather than to attempt 
such work in the tool-making room with hand forges. 

A foreman's office is provided so that he may have a proper place for 
keeping the records of the work of the department as well as a private room for 
convenience in making such sketches, plain drawings, or details as he may 
find necessary in carrying out the plans for tool making (these are not always 



EQUIPMENT OF TOOL ROOM AND TOOL STOREROOM 139 



worked out in sufficient detail by the drawing room force), or such as he may 
wish to devise himself for special work and develop as the necessities for them 
may arise. 

To avoid confusion in the tool-making department, a tool storeroom is 
provided, where the usual supply of lathe and planer tools, twist drills, taps, 
reamers, arbors, etc., is kept and issued to the tool-distributing points such 
as the general room near the engine room and the foremen's offices. In this 
room are also kept, when they are not in use, the jigs and fixtures necessary 
for machining small parts, as they can be better cared for here than in the 
machine shop. The entrance to this room for the workmen is so arranged 
that he enters a space in front of a counter and has no access to the main space 
of the room. This will prevent confusion and enable the tool keeper to do 
his work quickly and properly. 

To save unnecessary distance in reaching all tools and fixtures the alcoves 
of shelves are so placed that 
the alleys all terminate near the 
issuing counter. At the right 
is a convenient bench arranged 
with arbor racks as shown in 
Fig. 82. These racks will ac- 
commodate arbors from 4 to 7 
feet in length. The same form 
of racks may be arranged for 
any length too long for con- 
veniently placing on the shelves. 
Beneath this bench are strong 
shelves upon which may be 
placed heavy jigs and fixtures. 

Fig. 83 shows cases of in- 
clined shelves arranged with 
strips for holding such tools as 
drills, reamers, short arbors, 
and similar tools, and at the far 
end another form of arbor rack. 
This may, if preferred, be arranged similar to the arbor rack shown in Fig. 
82. The series of inclined shelves is continued as high as is within con- 
venient reach, and above this point horizontal shelves are provided which will 
be found convenient for holding jigs, fixtures, and similar articles that are 
seldom used, and not too heavy to be stored at that height. At the base of 
these cases a series of large drawers is located. They will be found very 
useful in storing small tools not needed on the shelves, and a variety of such 




Fig. 82. 



Bench, with Rack for Long Arbors, 
Boring Bars, etc. 



140 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 



articles as are best kept in such a receptacle until wanted for adding to the 
regular issuing assortment on the inclined shelves. 

In Fig. 84 is shown a form of case of inclined shelves for longer tools 
than can be accommodated in the cases shown in Fig. 83. Otherwise the 
arrangement is the same. The ends of these cases may be conveniently used 
for the posting of blueprint lists of regular or standard sizes of tools in stock, 
from which it will be easy to ascertain if a certain tool wanted is kept on the 
shelves. They may be used as tool check boards, being convenient to the 
desk and counter. 




Fig. 83. — Cases with Inclined Shelves, on each side of Alcove. 

Fig. 85 shows a file case in which a regular system of arrangement of the 
files of different lengths, cuts, and shapes are provided for, so as to make the 
memorizing of their location easy and convenient. It will be noticed that 
the smaller files, as the 3-inch, 4-inch and 5-inch files, have each one shelf pro- 
vided for them, while all of the larger sizes have two shelves to each length, 
as more different shapes and cuts of these are required. Also, that the coarsest 
cut is placed at the left and the triangular, square, and round shapes follow 
them toward the right, and that the files of each length are arranged in the 
same regular order. This arrangement will save much time in issuing files, 
as well as in distributing stock when it is received. The labels showing the 
shape, cut, and length are placed on the edge of the horizontal dividing shelves, 
the shape being shown as in the drawing. At the base, and below convenient 



EQUIPMENT OF TOOL ROOM AND TOOL STOREROOM 141 

reach in issuing, arc compartments for stock. The sizes and shapes of files 
shown are such as are usually needed in ordinary machine shop work. 

If a special class of work is done these sizes and shapes would, of course, 
have to be modified or added to, but the same general plan might be adhered 
to. As the files at the top of the case arc much shorter than those lower down, 
a waste space will be left in the rear of them. This may be utilized by forming 
compartments as shown at aa, in which drill rods or other similar articles 
may be placed if such are kept in this room. 




Fig. 84. — Case with Inclined Shelves suitable for 
Long Tools. 

From the window opening into the machine shop a system of tool carriers, 
similar to the cash carriers or the package carriers of a department store, may 
be run to the tool-distributing room near the engine room, to each of the 
foremen's offices, keeping out of the way of the traveling crane, and to the 
galleries. These will be very useful in sending in dull tools to the tool depart- 
ment to be ground and in quickly returning the same. Also, in keeping these 
distributing points supplied with standard tools in proper condition for use. 
Such a system will soon save its initial cost in the time that would otherwise 
be spent in carrying these tools, not to consider the many delays in the work, 
which is usually far more important. Several matters more or less closely 



142 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 



related to this subject will be discussed in detail in articles on the management 
of the work of the establishment. 

The speedy and economical transportation of small tools to and from 
the general tool room is a problem that, while of acknowledged importance in 
any large establishment is of sufficient moment in many shops of more mod- 
erate dimensions, and should receive a larger share of consideration than is 
generally given to it. The requirements of modern shop practice that the 
employees should not leave their machines to grind tools, or to go to the tool 
room to procure or to return them, becomes a large factor in the problem of 
their quick transportation, and even with the system of errand boys to do 



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Fig. 85.— Front and End Elevation of File Case. 

this work there are many conditions of the modern shop where a good and 
efficient system of transportation in both vertical and horizontal directions 
becomes a necessity, if we consider economy along with efficiency. 

For instance: In a large plant of one floor, it may not be convenient to 
locate the tool room near the center of the machine shop for the purpose of 
shortening the lines of travel of the errand boys. Or, if so located, these lines 
may still be so long as to cause a considerable loss of time. In this case the 
establishing of auxiliary tool rooms, while of considerable advantage in the 
distribution of tools, still leaves the transportation problem untouched and 
out of the question. 



EQUIPMENT OF TOOL ROOM AND TOOL STOREROOM 143 



Again, in shops consisting of several floors, as many in the crowded cities 
must necessarily be, the vertical transportation of tools from a general tool 

room to and from the several 
floors should be accomplished 
as quickly and with as little 
manual labor as may be. 

These being the conditions, 
it becomes necessary to devise 
a system of transportation that 
will accomplish the required re- 
sults in as economical and effi- 
cient a manner as possible, and 
at the same time occupy as lit- 
tle space in the shop as may be, 
and that shall not be liable to 
frequent interruptions from get- 
ting out of order. It must, 
therefore, be some overhead sys- 
tem, when used for horizontal 
transportation ; it must be simple 
and of as few parts as possible 
so as to be inexpensive, and to 
be less liable to disarrangement ; 
and it must practically take 
care of itself under all ordinary 
circumstances. 

It is believed that the sys- 
tem herein shown and described, 
if properly constructed and in- 
stalled, will fulfil all these con- 
ditions satisfactorily. In the 
engravings accompanying this 
description, Figs. 86, 87 and 88 
represent the system of horizon- 
tal transportation, and Figs. 89 
and 90 that for vertical service. 
The horizontal system consists 
of a half-inch braided cotton 
sash cord, fitted with metal 
couplings and passing over comparatively large sheaves at each terminal. 
Upon this carrying cord are suspended hanging receptacles of suitable 






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144 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 



form and dimensions for holding the tools to be transported. Fig. 86 is a 
side elevation of the fixed terminal, the shaft b, upon which is fixed the 
main sheave B, being journaled in the hangers A, one of which is of sufficient 
length to furnish a bearing for the shaft, while the other has formed upon it a 
curved arm a, in the outer end of which is journaled the sheave C, for the 
purpose of supporting the carrying cord d, at the point where the carrier 
leaves the cord in coming to rest. Fixed to the extending arm a is an inverted 
U-shaped piece of sheet metal D, covering the carrying cord d, and furnishing 
a resting place for the carrier. This carrier is composed of a box E, of sheet 
or cast metal, with a curved bottom as shown, and suspended by the malleable 
iron supports F F. These are shown in end elevation, the supporting sheaves 





Figs. 89 and 90. — End View of Intermediate Support for Horizontal 
Transportation, and Carriers, Vertical System. 

in section, in Fig. 89, which shows the supporting sheaves G G and the bracket 
H, on which they are journaled. This device is also shown in front elevation 
in Fig. 87. This supporting device should be located at suitable distances 
along the line according to the loads to be carried, but always near enough to 
each other to prevent undue shocks as the carriers pass over the supporting 
sheaves. 

The carriers shown are of simple form and will be most useful for carrying 
the usual variety of small tools. Any convenient form may be used, however, 
the center of gravity being always kept directly under the carrying cord d. 
They may be made with considerably less drop from the carrying cord, for 
most kinds of tools, this distance being reduced nearly one half, which will 
cause them to move with less shock and less of the swinging motion as they 



EQUIPMENT OF TOOL ROOM AND TOOL STOREROOM 145 

pass along. They should never be relatively lower from the carrying cord 

than is here shown. 

Fig. 8& shows the adjustable terminal hanger A', and its connections. In 
this case two hangers are cast on a plate L, or permanently fixed to it, one of 
them having a projecting arm k, carrying the supporting sheave P, and being 
provided with the U-shaped cord shield 11, similar to that shown at D, Fig. 86. 
The plate L is arranged to slide upon the plate M, and is secured to it by two 
bolts as shown. The adjusting scrcnv R is provided for taking up any slack 
that may be in the carrying cord d. The main sheave, /, is fixed upon the 
shaft /', which is journaled in the hangers K. 

In operation, the device is driven from a pulley of suitable size on the 
shaft b, and at such a speed as will give sufficient momentum to the carrier E, 
to cause the carrier arms F F to ride up on the whole length of the cord shields 
D and n, and stop there with very little shock, the carrying cord running in 
the direction of the arrows. In use the carriers have only to be taken off and 
hung upon the returning portion of the carrying cord to return the empty or 
loaded carrier. Upon the arrival of a carrier it glides up on the cord shield 
D or 11, and remains there until removed. Should a second carrier arrive 
before this one is removed no harm is done, although it is expected that they 
will be removed as soon as they arrive. The cord shields D n may be made 
long enough to accommodate two carriers, but this will seldom be found 
necessary. 

The vertical system is shown in Figs. 89 and 90 and consists of two parallel 
chains A A , passing over the sprocket wheels B B at the top and under similar 
ones at the bottom. These chains may be driven from either the upper or 
lower shaft as may be most convenient. Pivoted to these chains are the car- 
riers C C C, which may be made of cast or sheet metal, and so formed, with the 
center of gravity considerably below the pivots, that they may always remain 
right side up, even when passing over the shaft b. These carriers should be 
about eight feet apart on the chains, and they should be painted a different 
color for each floor to which they are consigned, so that their contents may 
be readily removed at the proper destination without stopping the movement 
of the device for that purpose, it being understood that all descending carriers 
are consigned to the tool room on the first floor, or toward it, provided it is 
located on any other floor. 

These carriers may be so constructed as to automatically dump their 
contents at the proper floor without the attention of an attendant for that 
purpose. This system may be used in situations where continued vertical 
and horizontal transportation is wanted, by running the chains over guiding 
sprocket wheels at the proper turning points, as the carriers will always main- 
tain their proper positions no matter what may be the direction of movement 



146 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 



of the chains. However, for long horizontal distances this system will not 
be found as economical or as efficient as the first method described. 

The chain system should be run at a much slower speed than the cord 
system, as the carriers should be unloaded while in motion, while those on 
the cord system come to full stop until they are again wanted. Each will be 
found to be best adapted to its own particular sphere of usefulness as herein 
described. 

In the rough stock room the cases are also arranged in alcoves, and are 
of the form shown in Fig. 91. These are made wider at the base to accom- 






Fig. 91. — Modified Form of Stock Cases with. Lower 
Bins Enlarged. 



Fig. 92. — Modified Form of 
Stock Cases with Pigeon 
Holes for Rods, Tubing, etc. 



modate larger articles which are more conveniently handled at this height 
than higher. The construction is plainly shown in the drawing. At the upper 
portion plain shelves are provided to hold articles seldom used or of such 
irregular form as are not convenient to store in bins as arranged below. These 
may be constructed with a retaining strip at each side, thus forming bins all 
the way across the case, if the form of the articles stored renders it necessary. 
In Fig. 92 is shown a modified form of these cases, in which the center portion 
has formed in it compartments aa, in which may be stored round and square 
cold drawn steel, brass tubing, and similar articles, in a safe and convenient 
manner and without ocqupying any additional floor space. Fig. 93 shows a 



EQUIPMENT OF TOOL ROOM AND TOOL STOREROOM 147 

case, the front end of which is arranged to hold such articles as sheet brass, 
copper, or vulcanized fiber, in a similar manner to that provided for storing 
large window glass. This form of construction will be found better than to 
lay sheets in a horizontal position, as they can be more conveniently reached, 
and by providing entirely separate compartments for each thickness, small 
pieces can be more easily cared for and readily found when wanted. 

Wire in coils may be hung upon the walls. It should be so assorted and 
arranged that all of one material shall be together and that the smallest size 
is at the top, or at the left of the group. 




Fig. 93. — Combination Stock Case with Compartments for Sheet Metal, etc. 

Various modifications of these plans may be necessary in adapting the 
arrangements to different conditions and classes of materials to be handled, 
but in a general way the construction shown will be the most useful, both as 
to the proper storing and care of the stock, materials, and tools, and as to their 
convenient and consequently speedy delivery when called for. 

Cotton waste, or whatever equivalent is used, may be kept in a bin built 
under the bench, or in a similar one built under the stairs. 

A small counter scale weighing up to 80 pounds and provided with a pan 
for weighing small articles should be provided for the counter. 

The Purchased Parts Storeroom is located in the office portion of the 



i4§ MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 

building and is arranged in a similar manner to those just described. All 
articles purchased outside of the shops and in a complete form to enter into 
the work, are here received, stored, and issued. This will include all kinds 
of screws, bolts, hardware, belting, belt fastenings, etc. It might include files, 
but they are here classed as tools and put in the tool storeroom. Oil cans, 
hand lamps, file cards, emery cloth, grain emery, etc., may also be kept in 
the tool storeroom, as being more nearly allied to tools than to either rough 
stock or purchased parts. For the same reason it might be well to place 
belting and belt fastenings in this room. 

Returning to what may strictly be considered purchased parts, the fol- 
lowing arrangement of them will be found to be convenient and practical, 
both for proper storing and for issue. Machine screws should be kept in the 
original gross packages, on shelves not necessarily over 6 inches in width, and 
for the smaller sizes 5 inches apart; for the larger sizes about 9 inches apart. 
For eighty sorts, say from \ inch 6-32 to 2 inch 24-16, and in both round and 
flat heads, there will be about twenty linear feet of shelving required, exclusive 
of vertical supports. Set screws are also kept in the original packages on 
similar shelves. Thirty-four sorts, from \ inch x f inch to f inch x 2 J inches, 
of both oval and cupped points, will require about twenty linear feet of shelv- 
ing, exclusive of vertical supports, the shelves to be placed the same distance 
apart as for machine screws. 

While the set screws average larger than the machine screws there are 
only fifty in a package, against one hundred and forty-four machine screws. 
Set screws with V-points, if they are of small sizes, may be kept in the original 
packages, but if of larger sizes, as for shafting hangers, they are best stored 
loose in bins. Gib screws, being of the smaller sizes, should be kept in pack- 
ages or boxes. Round head and hexagon head cap screws of small sizes, say 
\ x 1 inch to 7-16 x if inch, should be kept in packages, on shelves, and will 
occupy about the same space as set screws. The larger sizes should be kept 
in bins holding about five hundred. In arranging shelf space for machine, 
cap, and set screws it is assumed that there will be at least three packages of 
each size on hand, which will be sufficient for all ordinary purposes. Special 
screws are usually made in large lots and are more conveniently kept in bins. 

Belting may be placed under the bench at the end of the room. The 
rolls should be set on edge, between vertical supporting boards, and kept in 
place by a strip 3 inches high, placed on the floor in front of the rolls. 
In issuing belting the roll remains in place and the portion taken off is stretched 
along the floor and measured to the length required. 

Miscellaneous hardware should be kept on shelves, and as it is seldom 
called for, the higher shelves will be the proper place. 

Should the amount of purchased parts be larger in proportion than is 



EQUIPMENT OF TOOL ROOM AND TOOL STOREROOM 1 49 

here arranged for, the door leading into the general office may be omitted, 
thus gaining room for one more ease and making one more alcove, and a 
door be cut through into the hall from the space inside the rail. This would 
add about 15 to 20 per cent to the storage capacity of the room. 

The desks provided in these rooms should be a fixed top about 44 inches 
from the floor. Twenty-four inches wide will be ample. The top should be 
inclined to the front about 1 inch to the foot. Drawers provided with locks 
are fitted under this top, and below the drawers should be three shelves 12 
inches wide, the first 8 inches from the floor and the others 8 inches apart. 
These will be convenient for storing books, blanks, etc. The space under 
the counters should also contain similar shelves, but these should not contain 
articles of regular issue to the shop. 

The stock used for building bins and cases should generally be f-inch 
pine. The divisions in the file case and in the sheet metal case need be only 
J inch thick. It is well to paint all these fittings quite a light lead color, as 
it is a good wearing color, and should not be so dark as to interfere with ample 
light. The partitions may be of the same tint up to a line 5 feet above the 
floor, and above that, including the ceilings, white. The same colors will be 
proper for the tool-making department. 

From the descriptions given in this work and the dimensions mentioned 
ordinary carpenters should be able to construct any of these fixtures in a cred- 
itable manner. The author has supervised the construction of every form 
shown herein and can testify to their convenience and efficiency as well as 
the economy of the construction shown and described. 



CHAPTER XIX 

THE DRAWING ROOM 

Effective planning. Congenial surroundings. "The brain room." Proper design and 
furniture. Natural lighting. Artificial lighting. Location of the drawing room. 
The necessity for photographic facilities. Blueprinting facilities. Drawing tables. 
Chief draftsman's office. Desk for the chief draftsman. Fifing case for drawings. 
Fifing case for tracings. Fifing case for blueprints. The dark room. The lavatory. 
The water-closets. The lockers. Plan of a drawing room with vault. Plan of offices 
on first floor wfien vaults are needed. The blueprint room. Blueprint frames and 
stands. Automatic washer for blueprints. Blueprint drying racks. The extension 
of drawing room facilities. 

Brains are more important than hands ; ideas are more sought after than 
things; the conception of that which we are to do, of that which we are to 
develop or to build, to produce and to sell, are first in the natural order of 
conducting all manufacturing operations, or of entering into any line of the 
world's trade and commerce. The plan is the first and important matter, 
and to plan well and wisely we must have the best ideas obtainable. These 
ideas and conceptions have many and far-reaching results and consequences, 
both as to a matter of mechanical and of financial success. Good ideas, 
properly developed and elaborated, may mean the beginning of years of busi- 
ness success to the owners or the promoters of the enterprise; while defective 
and ill-considered plans may mean practical ruin or thousands of dollars 
wasted in fruitless work. 

But to plan well; to bring out the best ideas of the men whose duty in 
life is to study and think and plan the work that others are to perform, men 
should be placed in proper and congenial surroundings, which may inspire 
them to conceive and bring out the very best ideas of which they are capable, 
just as in any other line of human effort we make the conditions as favorable 
to success as we can if Ave are to expect good results. 

The drawing room of the machine shop has often been facetiously called 
"the brain room," by those who have little conception of its real usefulness 
in the manufacturing establishment. Yet this is precisely what it should be, 
if it is properly organized, equipped, and has the right quality of men in its 
working force. And nowhere in the whole establishment is there more need 

150 



THE DRAWING ROOM 151 

of men of original thought; of men with ability to "see the point," to grasp 
the situation and make practical use of ideas and suggestions as they present 
themselves; and to take apparently worthless plans or devices and develop 
them into that which is mechanically good and financially profitable. 

These conditions making the drawing department one of the most im- 
portant in the whole establishment, it naturally follows that in its location 
and equipment much thought and care should be exercised so that all the 
conditions and surroundings should be of the best, as to their kind and their 
adaptation to the particular class of product which the establishment is to 
turn out. By this we do not mean that the drawing room should be expen- 
sively or luxuriously fitted up. Its design may be comparatively plain and 
vet architecturally and artistically correct and agreeable. Its furniture may 
be simple and yet appropriate, and serve its purpose as well as that costing 
several times as much. Dark-colored woods should not be used, owing to the 
fact that their color absorbs so much light. We should choose, rather, light- 
colored woods such as oak, ash, birch, or even white pine varnished, according 
to the amount available for the work. The walls may be wainscoted or 
sheathed up to about the height of the tables, but above this line they should 
be finished with a plain, white surface. The ceilings should also be white. 
A hard finish of what the plasterers call "adamant" is very durable and may 
be rendered still more so by painting with oil paint, several coats of which 
should be put on, in preference to kalsomining. 

The windows should extend from the height of the drawing tables entirely 
to the ceiling. They should be provided with two curtains, one reaching 
from the top of the window down to the center, and a second one reaching 
from the center down to the bottom. The men working directly in front of 
the windows should only handle the lower curtain; and those in the center of 
the room have charge of the upper curtain. The curtains should be white, 
or nearly so. Instead of curtains some prefer ribbed glass, as it does not 
admit a glaring light in any one place, but is very useful in diffusing the light 
over the whole room, and the appearance of the room is much better than 
where curtains are used. Some prefer plain glass for the lower portion of 
the window and ribbed glass for the upper portion. 

Electricity is the favorite artificial light, and the incandescent lamp seems 
to be the proper one. The question of whether we shall use enough of these, 
placed high up, to flood the whole room with light, or have them low down 
and under the control of each individual, is still discussed with fairly good 
reasons on both sides. Probably a majority of draftsmen will prefer the 
individual lamps which they can place in any position best calculated to aid 
them in the particular kind of work in hand. 

Some of the more important conditions in reference to the location and 



152 MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 

construction of the drawing room are these : It should be away from the noise 
and bustle of the machine shop, yet near enough to make the latter readily 
accessible. It should be directly connected with the pattern shop as it is so 
intimately associated with it in many of the preliminary operations. It should 
be readily accessible from the offices. It should have plenty of fresh air and 
be well ventilated at all seasons of the year. In winter the heating system 
should be such as to maintain as even a temperature as possible. I: should 
be well lighted, by natural light by day, and a proper artificial light during 
the hours which make it necessary. It should be provided with proper 
facilities for photographing machines, or any of the articles produced by the 
shops. It should have connected with it, but not installed in it, facilities for 
blueprinting, where an abundance of light is available at all hours of the day. 
It should be provided with proper facilities, not only for making drawings 
and tracings, but for indexing them, for issuing and receiving them, and for 
safely preserving them from hre or other injury. In the descriptive matter 
which follows and the drawings illustrating it, the effort has been made to 
meet all of these conditions in a practical and economical manner, and on 
such a plan as will provide drawings, tracings, blueprints, etc.. for small or 
large plants, or for a large variety in the product to be manufactured; as will 
be pointed out in detail later on in this chapter. 

In the drawings, Fig. 94 is a plan of the drawing room, located above the 
offices and well lighted by ten large windows, as shown. It is reached from 
the latter by a broad flight of stairs. Along the front are located the drawing 
tables, providing for eleven draftsmen. The arrangement is so made that 
three of the single or regular tables are for the draftsmen making the general 
drawings, their tables facing the windows. Between them the two double 
tables are placed, with their ends toward the windows. These tables accom- 
modate four men each, who do the detail work and the tracings. The circles 
in front of the tables indicate the positions of the men. 

The single drawing tables are shown in perspective in Fig. 95 . These 
are of the plainest construction consistent with usefulness. The top inclines 
1 inch to the foot, and is 3 by 6 feet, which is ample for most general drawing 
work. They may be made with vertical legs, but the crossed legs here shown 
are more rigid. Braces extend from the crossing of the legs to the center 
beneath the drawers, to support the top as well as to act as braces to insure 
stiffness. Foot rests are provided, 10 inches from the floor. The height of 
the tables in front is 37 inches. Three drawers are supplied for holding 
instruments, books, memoranda, etc. If preferred these tables may be con- 
structed with vertical legs as shown in Fig. 96, if appearance is a point con- 
sidered, as they will thus present a more symmetrical form. The cost will, of 
course, be somewhat greater. 



THE DRAWING ROOM 



153 



Many more or less complicated forms of drawing tables, as well as other 
equipments for the drawing room, have been devised, described, illustrated, 
built, used, and in many cases discarded; and it has come to be the opinion 
of many of the older draftsmen that while each of the more complicated 
devices has its peculiar merits, the simpler forms are, in the long run, best 
adapted to every-day work. The double drawing tables are shown in Fig. 96. 
They are 6 feet by 10, and are the same height and inclination of top as the 
single tables. Three drawers are provided for each draftsman, and a con- 




Fig. 94. — Plan of the Drawing Room and its Arrangement. 

venient shelf is placed over the center, within the reach of all the men, for 
holding instruments and many small articles that it is desired to place out of 
hand but within reach. Foot rests are provided the same as in the single 
tables. These tables are of the proper height to permit the draftsmen either 
to sit or stand at their work, as a change of position is much easier than main- 
taining either one of these positions for hours at a time. 

The chief draftsman has a separate room and he is provided with one 
draftsman whose duty will be that of working out special devices that come 
more particularly under the constant supervision of the chief. The desk of 
the chief is shown in Fig. 97, and is identical with one used several years by 



x 54 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 



the author and found to be a very useful and practical desk and drawing table 
combined. The top is 30 inches high and 34 inches wide by 6 feet long. 
The center of the top at the front is cut out in a semicircular or hexagonal 
form of a recess to enable the draftsman to sit in close to his work and at the 
same time to have ample table room at the right and left. Two boards 
drawing out under the top, one at each side, add to this space, so that a prac- 
tically continuous table on three sides of the draftsman is provided. This 




Fig. 95. — Drawing Table for one Draftsman. 







Fig. 96. — Double Drawing Table for Detail Draftsmen. 

arrangement is very useful where many reference drawings, books, or catalogues 
are to be consulted. Four drawers on each side and one directly in front 
furnish ample filing space. A shelf at the back is convenient for books or 
for supporting instruments or other small articles not in use at the moment. 
The chief's room is provided with a convenient closet, and it has a table with 
drawers beneath and a bookcase above, as well as a letter-copying press for 



THE DRAWING ROOM 



i55 



making letter-press copies of sketches, memoranda, and similar matter sent 
into the shop or to those outside of it. The drawing table used by the chief's 
assistant is the same as the single tables in the large room. 

In Fig. 98 is shown a very convenient filing case for drawings. It has 
drawers for general drawings and detail drawings, made of different sizes to 
suit their dimensions. These drawers should have a fixed horizontal strip, 




Fig. 97. — Chief Draftsman's Desk. 




Fig. 98. — Case for Filing Drawings and Tracings. 

say f-inch thick and 5 inches wide, running along the back of the drawer at 
the top, to prevent drawings from curling up and sliding over the back edge 
of the drawer. In the front part of the drawer a similar strip, pivoted, or 
hinged so as to turn down over the front edge of the drawings, or back out of 
the way when the drawings are to be examined, removed, or replaced, will 
be found very useful. In the center of the front, each drawer should have a 



i56 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 



metal label holder, in which a lettered card, readily removed and changed 
when necessary, describes the contents of the drawer. Usually each drawer 
is devoted to the drawings of one machine. Above the table are two cases in 
which are to be kept rolls of drawing paper of different widths or qualities, 
tracing cloth, tracing paper, etc. Doors hinged at the top and provided with 
spring catches at the bottom afford convenient access. The ends of the rolls 
of paper are brought down at the back and out the front under a guide bar, 
as shown, and along a sliding scale-of-inches, let into the top covering the 
drawers, and by which any length or width of sheets are measured, and may 
be cut off with a knife guided by the guide bar. 

So far as we know, this is the most practical and convenient method of 
keeping and cutting up drawing papers; and the plan of purchasing drawing 
paper in rolls and cutting it up into any desired size of sheets seems to be 
preferable to purchasing the paper in sheets of odd sizes and trimming it to 




Fig. 99. — Case for Filing Blueprints. 

the dimensions required. In the center, between the two drawing paper 
cases, are shelves for holding books, catalogues, etc. This case is located 
against the wall dividing the drawing room from the pattern shop, and con- 
venient of access for the draftsmen. 

At the opposite side of the room, and against the stationary partition, is 
the case for filing tracings; and against the wall next to the machine shop a 
similar case is used for finished blueprints. It is of the form shown in Fig. 99, 
and has drawers constructed in the same manner as those in the case for 
drawings shown in Fig. 98. It is built higher than the latter to increase its 
capacity, although, of course, it may contain any number of drawings required 
for the work. 

Many systems for filing and preserving drawings, tracings, and blue- 
prints have been devised, but here again simplicity will be found best in 



THE DRAWING ROOM 157 

practice, and by devoting one drawer to each machine, and properly indexing 
the drawings and tracings, the desired sheet may be quickly found, taken out, 
and replaced, with little disturbance to the others. Where the variety of the 
work makes it necessary to have a great number of classes it will be found that 
a more elaborate system is needed, but the plan proposed will be sufficient for 
a large majority of establishments. In filing tracings it is well to lay in a 
sheet of thin straw board between every ten or twelve tracings, or to divide 
the tracings of a machine into divisions representing the groups of parts of the 
machine, as, for instance, of a lathe, the headstock, tailstock, carriage, apron, 
etc. This helps to keep the tracings lying flat without wrinkles and aids in 
quickly finding the one needed. 

Next to the chief's room a dark room is provided for photographic work, 
as every modern drawing room is expected to be able to make photographs of 
machinery and similar articles; and this branch of work should not be done 
in connection w T ith blueprinting, owing to failures that may result from care- 
lessness in handling the necessary chemicals. 

In the opposite corner of the drawing room and next to the pattern shop 
is arranged a lavatory provided with twelve bowls for the use of the draftsmen 
and pattern makers. In connection with this are two water-closets, one of 
which opens out of the lavatory and is used by the pattern makers ; the other 
opening from the drawing room is for the draftsmen's use. A large storage 
closet is included in the space devoted to the above purposes, and between this 
space and the rear wall is the stairway leading to the blueprint room above. 
A fire-proof safe of sufficient size should be provided for storing such records 
and original drawings of special devices as cannot be readily replaced, and 
such valuable papers as always accumulate in the drawing room. 

In the central space of the room is a table 5 feet by 14, for large reference 
drawings and similar purposes. Drawers under this table are convenient for 
holding large construction sheets which cannot be filed in the regular cases 
without folding. 

Against the partition of the chief's room is a row of lockers, one for each 
man. These should never be constructed of boards, or in any way tightly 
enclosed, but, as a matter of fire protection and sanitary cleanliness, should be 
open to a free circulation of air; and nothing which we have seen fulfils the 
conditions better, or perhaps as well, as what is generally known as the " ex- 
panded metal" used in many establishments for this purpose. 

The above arrangement of the drawing room and its equipment is intended 
for cases where there does not seem to be the need of an expensive vault in 
which to store drawings, tracings, blueprints, etc. Still the want of this 
means of safety to such valuable records in case of fire has of late years been 
gaining in importance and would seem, in most cases perhaps, a good invest- 



i^8 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 



ment from the point of view of insurance. Hence an arrangement of the plans 
of both offices and drawing room has been made with this end in view, and 
is shown in Figs, ioo and 101. As a matter of economy the vault is built in 
a corner of the structure, the walls of which form two of its sides. For this 
purpose the superintendent's public and private offices are placed next to each 
other and the lavatory located between the latter and the vault, while the 
stairway leading to the drawing room is placed between the hall and the Pur- 
chased Parts Storeroom. This permits the vault in the drawing room to be 
built directly over the one in the offices and next to the chief ? s room, out of 
which it opens, without disarranging the plans to any considerable extent. 



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MACHINE. SHOP 



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Fig. ioo. — Drawing Room Arranged for Storage Vault in one Corner 

The dark room is placed under the stairs leading to the blueprint room. The 
vault is provided with cases of drawers similar to those in the drawing room, 
and with racks for holding negatives, as well as shelves upon which may be 
stored any valuable records, memoranda, and similar articles. These vaults 
are 8 feet wide and 16 feet long, and have masonry floors and brick arches 
overhead. The walls should be 16 inches thick, exclusive of an air space of 
i \ inches in the center of the walls. Steel should not be used in their construc- 
tion unless it is completely covered by brickwork, on account of its tendency 



THE DRAWING ROOM 



159 



to warp from the excessive heat of a fire. Double fire-proof doors should be 
provided, similar to those used in safes. The hinges should be held by bolts 
passing entirely through the walls, as should also be the case with bolts securing 
the door frames. 

The blueprint room is located in the monitor roof in the center of the 
building, and thus over both the drawing room and the pattern shop. The 
space available is 18 feet wide. It is well lighted along one side and across the 
front end. In it are built a large dark room and other facilities and appliances 




Fig. ioi. — Arrangement of Offices under Drawing Room where 
there is a Vault. 

for print washing and drying, as is shown in Fig. 102. The blueprint frames 
are opened and filled in the dark room and the smaller ones carried out the 
door to a platform built over the roof and on a level with the floor of the 
blueprint room. Instead of being supported by any kind of a rack, they are 
placed upon an adjustable blueprinting stand, as shown in Figs. 103 and 104. 
This may be easily turned to face the sun and the supporting board adjusted 



i6o 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 



to whatever altitude the sun may happen to be at the time. The stand is 
made with a cast iron standard rising from the base which is supported on 
three caster wheels of not less than 3 inches in diameter. A cast iron support 




Fig. 102. — Plan of the Blueprint Room. 




Fig. 103. — Side Elevation. Fig. 104. — Perspective View. 
Stand for Supporting Blueprint Frame. 

is pivoted between jaws formed in the standard, to which it is clamped in any 
desired position by a bolt and hand nut, as shown in Fig. 103. The board 
is attached to this support. When in the room the board may be brought 
to a nearly vertical position, thereby occupying less space. These stands 
may be kept in the room and the boards placed upon them and rolled out 



THE DRAWING ROOM 



161 




Fig. 105. — Large Blueprint Frame. 



on the platform, if heavy printing frames are used, but this is not usually 
necessary. 

Fig. 105 shows a device for supporting large printing frames. This rests 
on four caster wheels of not less than 4 inches in diameter. Trunnions are 
fixed on the sides of the printing frame in a position to exactly balance it, 
and either the collars of these 
trunnions should press tightly 
against the standards, or the 
trunnions should be considerably 
larger than those shown, so that 
the friction will hold the frame in 
any desired position for printing. 
The printing frame may be held 
in a horizontal position for filling 
by means of the rod pivoted at 
one end of the frame and having 
at the other a hook formed upon 
it which engages a staple in the end of the frame. When in use this frame 
is rolled to the door of the dark room, the tracing and blueprint paper put 
in, closed up, and rolled out on the platform, thus avoiding much of the 
usual manual labor in carrying heavy printing frames. 

Where printing must be done out of a window various forms of tracks 
and frames must be resorted to, but there are many advantages in so locating 
the blueprint room as to utilize the roof for supporting a large, level platform, 
as here described. In cases where no monitor roof or similar facilities are 
offered, and the roof is nearly level, or with a slight pitch, it will be best to 
build a printing room on the roof with a platform outside of it, so as to be 
operated as here described. 

A simple washing box is provided for soaking blueprints in the usual 
way. Also, an automatic print washer, as shown in Figs. 106 and 107. In 
this device a fixed box has pivoted in it a smaller box, whose bottom is com- 
posed of light slats. Upon this box is attached, but so as to be removable, a 
smaller box with a perforated bottom and divided by a transverse partition 
set exactly in the center. The operation of the device is as follows: The top 
box being removed by turning the buttons securing it, the blueprints are laid 
upon the slats, as many as six or eight at a time, and the top box replaced. 
The water is turned on at the faucet and one end of the pivoted box is depressed 
to either of the positions shown by dotted lines in Fig. 107, which will throw 
the water into the compartment at the higher end of the smallest box. A 
considerable portion of the water will trickle through the small holes of the 
top box and upon the blueprints, while the opposite ends of the prints are 



162 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 



immersed in the water of the lower box, which is maintained at a constant 
height by the overflow pipe, as shown in Fig. 107. The perforations in the 
bottom of the top box not being sufficient to carry off all the water, it gradually 
fills up that compartment and the pivoted box, thus weighted, is depressed, 
and the water from the faucets flows into the other compartment and the 
operation is repeated. The frequency of this rocking movement is easily 
regulated by the amount of water that flows from the faucet. The operation 
is not only entirely automatic, but very thorough in its action, as the prints 




Fig. 106. — Automatic Washer for Blueprints. 



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Fig. 107. — Longitudinal Section of Automatic Washer. 

lying upon each other are separated and the upper ones float whenever that 
end is depressed into the water. The water constantly flowing in and out of 
the lower box readily eliminates the chemicals that are to be washed out of 
the prints. So far as he knows, the author originated this method for washing 
blueprints and photograph prints, and used it with much satisfaction. The 
boxes may be made of wood and kept well painted; or may be of galvanized 
iron or zinc protected by paint. The original one was made of white pine, 
the lower box of ij-inch, the pivoted box of J-inch and the top one of |-inch 
stuff, and painted with white lead. 

For drying blueprints various devices have been used, but so far as the 
author knows, nothing is more economical or better adapted to the purpose 



THE DRAWING ROOM 



1G3 



than the drying case, or cabinet, shown in Fig. 108. The plan is to attach 
the blueprints to small, round sticks by means of small wooden spring clips 
and hang them on supporting brackets. The brackets are of light cast iron 
or wood, as may be preferred, and should incline on an angle of 45 degrees, 
so that any print may be conveniently reached and removed without removing 
those in front of it. Two pairs of these brackets are located, one above the 
other, for medium sized prints, say 18 x 24 inches, as on the left of the en- 
graving, or one pair for large prints, as shown on the right. The upper 
section of prints drip the water into a zinc tray supported by a wooden shelf 
fixed at an angle of 45 degrees, from the lower corner of which, at the back, 




Fig. 108. — Blueprint Drying Racks and Cabinet. 



a short pipe carries the water into a similar tray resting on the floor, and 
from which suitable pipes carry the water to the waste pipes coming from 
the print-washing apparatus. The drying of blueprints may, of course, be 
hastened by the application of artificial heat. For this purpose doors may 
be added to the drying case and a small steam coil be placed in the bottom 
or near the back of the case. But to use artificial heat, or any temperature 
over about 100 degrees, has a tendency to cause the prints to be distorted by 
unequal shrinkage, and marred by wrinkles, while drying them by the natural 
temperature of the room, and suspended as in this case, will cause them to 
come out in good condition. 

In some large establishments blueprints are made by exposing the blue- 
print paper and tracing to the action of the light from an electric arc lamp 
located within a metallic cylinder, in which the paper is fixed, and by 



i6 4 MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 

means of which excellent blueprints may be made in large numbers without 
the aid of sunlight. While the first cost is considerable the work is done very 
expeditiously and economically, as the cost of labor is very much reduced. 
The quality of the work is good, as the lighting is very uniformly distributed 
over the surface of the sensitized paper. 

To adapt this plan of construction and equipping a drawing room to the 
wants of larger establishments requiring a larger force of draftsmen it is only 
necessary to extend its length so as to provide for a greater number of the 
single and double drawing tables, to any extent required. The capacity for 
filing drawings, tracings, and blueprints should be increased in proportion. 
One or more large tables for reference drawings will be needed, and the number 
of lockers increased to accommodate the added force of draftsmen. Other- 
wise the same arrangement of the plan need not be disturbed, as the chief's 
room, photographic dark room, vault, and all the other accessories will be either 
ample or very easily adapted to an increase to any reasonable extent that 
may be desired. 



CHAPTER XX 

THE PATTERN SHOP AND PATTERN STORAGE ROOM 

Location in relation to the drawing room and machine shop. Capacity of the pattern shop. 
The working force necessary. Nature of the product. Equipment of the pattern shop. 
Location of the machines. Building up segment work. The segment press. The 
faceplate lathe. The foreman's office. The surface plate. Pattern maker's benches. 
The work table. The varnishing bench and table. The lockers. The lumber loft 
over the pattern shop. The lumber drying room. The pattern storage room. System 
of storing patterns. Pattern storage racks of iron construction. The same of all wood 
construction. Double width storage racks. Step ladders. 

Next to the drawing room, in the usual order of the production of new 
machines and the development of new plans and ideas into their practical 
form for commercial purposes, comes the pattern shop, with its proper equip- 
ment of woodworking machines, its work benches for the expert workmen, 
and the conveniences for those associated with them in getting out dimension 
lumber, and other similar work in connection with it ; and closely allied with 
this department, and really forming a part of it is the pattern storage room, 
wherein patterns may be properly catalogued, stored, and issued to the foundry 
as occasion may require. 

In the pattern shop proper the designs of the draftsmen are first brought 
into tangible form as patterns for the production of those parts to be made 
of that most common of all materials used in modern construction, namely, 
cast iron, as well as those for brass, malleable iron, and steel castings. 

It is proper, therefore, as well as convenient, that the pattern shop should 
be placed next to the drawing room. In this case it opens out of it, and has 
also its convenient passageway to the machine shop by way of a wide door 
opening upon the machine shop gallery, which, being reached by the large 
traveling crane, affords a ready means for moving any heavy or bulky articles 
to and from the pattern shop as readily as to any part of the machine shop. 

The pattern shop occupies the space over the tool room and storeroom 
portions of one of the 50-foot square structures, and extends, also, over the 
space taken up by the main driveway on the ground floor. It is thus 50 by 70 
feet, affording ample space for all the ordinary uses of this department. 

165 



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In Fig. 109 is shown the 
plan of the pattern shop and the 
pattern storage room, and the 
location of the tools, machines, 
benches, and other fixtures 
therein, as well as those in the 
pattern storage room, giving the 
location of the pattern storage 
racks, and the trap doors, one 
of which opens over the storage 
space in the yard and the other 
over the flask room of the foun- 
dry. 

As to the capacity of the 
pattern shop and the number of 
workmen who may be employed 
in it to advantage, assuming that 
the arrangement is in force of 
having special men for special 
work, there may be fourteen 
men as its regular force. These 
will be divided as follows, 
namely, one foreman, six regular 
pattern makers, one man at the 
lathes, one man at the planers, 
one man for the rip saw and the 
cutting-off saw, one man at the 
band saw and for building up 
segment work, one man at the 
varnish bench for varnishing 
patterns, and one man to letter 
and keep a record of patterns, 
and one general laborer. 

If the product of the shop 
is in a regular line where nearly 
the same work is turned out 
year after year, we have only 
to provide for the necessary 
changes of patterns due to the 
usual changes of form and style 
that may be required by the 



THE PATTERN SHOP AND PATTERN STORAGE ROOM 167 

demands of trade. In this case the force above provided for could well be 
considerably reduced. If the product of the establishment is of such a nature 
that improvements, both in the work turned out and also in the tools neces- 
sary to accomplish that result, are constantly in progress, the force above 
specified will not be too great. If the product is such that a majority of the 
orders are for such machines as have to be made special, or with important 
features specialized to meet individual cases, then the force described above 
may not be sufficient to maintain an evenly balanced arrangement and division 
of the working force of the establishment. 

Where the latter condition is found it may be necessary to use a portion 
of the pattern storage room adjoining the pattern shop, and well lighted for 
such use, should it become necessary. 

The equipment of the pattern shop has been carefully worked out, with 
the end constantly in view of so arranging the available space and of so 
equipping it with such woodworking machinery as may be necessary to carry 
out the plan of keeping the skilled pattern makers constantly at work on that 
which is essentially pattern work, and requiring a man skilled in that vocation, 
rather than of allowing them to use their time in getting out dimension lumber, 
varnishing patterns, and similar work, which may be just as well done by 
men of less ability and a lower rate of wages. 

Consequently the machines, such as surface planer, jointer, rip saw, 
cutting-off saw, etc., are handled by men who are practically "mill men" who, 
while they know little or nothing about pattern making, are capable of getting 
out such dimension lumber as may be called for by the pattern makers in 
much less time and at less cost than if it were done by the pattern maker 
himself. So it is with the man who handles the band saw, whose principal 
work is that of cutting out segments for the building up of the rims of wheels, 
gears, etc. Being constantly at this particular kind of work, the man need 
not be a skilled pattern maker and yet can exceed one in the output and the 
economy of doing this class of work. In the same manner, for varnishing of 
new patterns and the revarnishing of old ones, a pattern maker is not needed. 
Neither is it necessary to employ one to mark, letter, arrange, and catalogue 
the patterns when completed, as this work may be just as well and much 
more economically done by a special man at a less rate of wages. 

The equipment of machinery and fixtures for the pattern shop, and the 
location selected for them to insure convenience of their operation and of the 
handling of stock and product without unnecessary labor, is fully shown in 
the general plan in Fig. 109, and is as follows: Next to the machine shop wall 
is placed a jointing planer, provided with the usual guides and gages by 
which the various angles or bevels may be cut upon any length of stock up 
to 16 feet. Beside this is an ordinary surfacing planer capable of taking in 



1 68 MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 

24 inches in width and, also, 16 feet in length. Upon the jointing planer 
stuff may be planed "out-of-wind," and then passed to the surfacing planer 
for reducing it to an even thickness. If much large work is to be made where 
large and perfectly true surfaces are necessary to be obtained, it will be 
advisable to have a Daniels, or vertical planer, to which this stuff is first taken. 
From the surface planer the stuff passes to the rip saw, and from there to the 
cutting-off or cross-cut saw. In many cases it must be passed back to the 
jointer to be finished on the edges. 

Shop trucks with proper racks should be provided, upon which the 
lumber may be placed, so that unnecessary handling or carrying may be 
avoided. 

Next to the segment press is a core-box machine, which is a very con- 
venient, if not almost indispensable, machine where many boxes for round 
cores are to be made, as it accomplishes the work in a fraction of the time 
required to do it by hand. 

Next to the core-box machine is a special pattern maker's circular saw 
bench, which is so arranged as to carry both rip saw and cutting-off saw, 
either of which may be brought into use as needed; and a table capable of 
being set at any desirable angle. The table is provided with guides and 
gages for cutting any angle wanted. This saw is of special value in pattern- 
shop work, and saves much hand labor, even in cutting out the quite small 
parts of patterns. The Colburn universal saw table is an excellent example 
of this class of machine. 

As a large part of pattern making often consists in laying up segment 
work, special provision is made for it. From the planers the stuff is taken 
to the segment table, laid out, then to the band saw where it is cut into seg- 
ments, from whence it goes to the trimmer, the ends are cut and the segments 
are fitted into circles on a wooden faceplate. This plate has formed on its 
under side a recess which fits over the iron faceplate of the lathe. A circle 
of these segments having been fitted together, they are glued at the ends and 
small steel dogs inserted to hold them. Another circle is formed and glued 
at the ends and to the first segment, the dogs being placed in the edges, out 
of the way, and the whole placed in the segment press, which holds it firmly 
until the glue has set; and so on until the job has been completely laid .up. 
It is convenient to have two faceplates to work on alternately, as one may 
be in the press while an additional circle of segments is being fitted to the 
other. 

The segment press is of the vertical type, and may be constructed with a 
large screw acting upon a follower, or it may be built similar to a Greenerd 
arbor press with a rack and pinion arrangement. A convenient form is 
one with a vertical screw having fixed to its upper end a large worm-wheel 



THE PATTERN SHOP AND PATTERN STORAGE ROOM 169 

which engages a worm upon a horizontal shaft, which extends to one side 
of the press, where a hand wheel is attached to it for convenience of oper- 
ating. With this arrangement segments may be made and laid up in much 
less time than where hand clamps are used and applied as each segment is 
laid on, while the evenly distributed pressure insures good contact of all the 
pieces. They may be nailed, or not, as desired. 

For small turned work a wood lathe to swing 18 inches, and with a 10-foot 
bed, is provided. For larger work a lathe of 30 inches swing and with a 
16-foot bed will be a good size. Both should be provided with slide rests, 
and the larger one with a faceplate on the back end of the spindle for turning 
large work from a floor rest. When much larger faceplate work is called 
for, a faceplate head is needed, and one is located near the rear wall and in 
line with a rear window. This head carries a faceplate capable of swinging 
10 feet. In front of this may be arranged a compound rest, supported by 
a pedestal, and capable of covering the turning, inside and out, and of facing 
the largest work to be done. 

Near the lathes the grindstone and the emery wheel are located. The 
latter should be provided with wheels of different form for grinding the various 
shapes and sizes of gouges and similar tools in use. 

The foreman's corner is next to the drawing room, so as to be in con- 
venient communication with that department. He has a bench, more as an 
occasional convenience than for regular use, and a desk, as a necessary part 
of his equipment, as he has various books, blanks, reports, etc., to handle, 
and as a matter of efficiency and economy of time should have all the necessary 
conveniences for doing this part of his work. 

The first pattern maker from him has, in addition to the regular equip- 
ment, the use of a cast iron surface plate, say 5 by 8 feet, its dimensions reg- 
ulated, of course, by the kind of work to be done. This is an indispensable 
convenience in building up many of the more complicated patterns, and there 
should be at least one in every pattern shop. 

The pattern maker's bench is shown in perspective in Fig. no. The 
top is 30 inches wide and 10 feet long. It stands 34 inches high. It is com- 
posed of hard maple at the front, 12 inches wide, and the rear portion of 
white pine, both 2 \ inches thick. It is supported on three cast iron bench 
legs, the front feet of which are set back 5 or 6 inches, so as to be out of the 
way of the pattern maker's feet. The upper 16 inches of these legs have a 
facing of hard maple, that on the center and rear legs having holes for the 
introduction of pins for supporting long work w T hen held on edge. Four 
drawers, with flush pulls, are placed in a case under the rear portion of the 
bench, for holding small tools, files, and a variety of similar articles found 
necessary by every pattern maker. 



170 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 



At the rear end of the bench is formed a compartment under the bench 
for holding short pieces of hard wood stock, dowel pins, and similar ma- 
terials. At the head of the bench is located an Emmert universal vise, 




which seems to be the best device yet put on the market for this purpose, as 
it may be placed in almost any position convenient to the workman, and 
will hold a piece of almost any form with equal facility. At the back of the 



THE PATTERN SHOP AND PATTERN STORAGE ROOM 171 

bench is a shelf or tool rack extending the whole length, and at a proper height 
above it is one extending one half the length. These are to be properly per- 
forated for the reception of the ordinary tools of the pattern maker, such as 
his chisels, gouges, auger bits, twist bits and drills, screw drivers, and all 
similar tools. Over this short tool rack the backboard is extended up to a 
light rail, so as to provide a space for hanging larger tools, such as bit-stocks, 
back saws, and tools of this nature. At the back of the rear half is an open 
frame whose top bar is provided with pins for hanging large saws and similar 
articles. If the kind of work renders it necessary a bench trimmer should be 
attached at the rear end. This style of a bench is at once rigid and substantial, 
does not occupy unnecessary floor space, is compact and complete in all its 
arrangements, and for a first-class bench it is economical in cost. 

These benches are arranged with the head toward the wall and two feet 
from it, so that private tool boxes or cupboards may be conveniently arranged 
upon it. Their positions are clearly shown in the plan. 

A large work table is provided for the second pattern maker, and one 
should be provided for the others when the nature of their work requires it. 
It may be placed either between the benches, or near their rear end, as may 
be most convenient. 

It will be noticed that the benches and machines are so arranged that 
they leave a broad alley through the shop, and to the door leading to the 
machine shop gallery. 

There is a regular wall bench and a large center table provided for the 
varnisher and the workman having charge of the marking, numbering, and 
cataloguing of the patterns. From this point they may be taken on properly- 
arranged platform trucks, to the pattern storage room, or to the foundry, as 
the case may require. 

At each side of the stairs leading to the loft the individual lockers for the 
use of the men are arranged. These are of the expanded metal type, as built 
by Merritt & Co., or of some very similar material and construction, but never 
of boards, or any construction which excludes thorough ventilation and safety 
from fire. 

The stairs just mentioned lead to the loft shown in the plan in Fig. in 
and in which is constructed a lumber drying room, as laid out in the plan and 
shown in interior perspective in Fig. 112. This room is tightly closed by 
double sheathing on the top, the back, and both sides. The front is closed 
by three sliding doors, arranged to pass each other, so that any portion of 
the front may be opened for the purpose of putting in or taking out lumber. 
The lumber racks are of wood construction, the posts being 4x5 inches, the 
two lower horizontal timbers 3x6 inches; the next two are 3x5 inches, and 
the upper three are 3x4 inches. These timbers should be firmly bolted 



172 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 




together and to the sides of the room by through and through bolts, as there 
will necessarily be much shrinking of the timbers, and consequently no nails 
should be used. The sheathing may be put on vertically or horizontally, as 
preferred, but both thicknesses should run the same direction, and should 
break joints. The studding or timber work supporting the sheathing should 
not be over three feet apart, in the direction of the length of the sheathing. 

In the drawing, Fig. 112, 
only the front frame is shown on 
the left of the room, to avoid a 
confusion of lines, as the form 
and location is fully shown on 
the opposite side. The frames 
should be placed seven feet 
apart, so as to accommodate 
lumber from 8 to 18 feet in 
length. The lumber is placed 
on edge, supported by three 
racks or frames of this kind, 
and held in place by round iron 
rods, f-inch for the three lower 
sections, and |-inch for the three 
upper sections. These rods 
should be placed five inches 
apart in the lower section, four 
inches in the second, three and 
one quarter inches in the third, 
two and one quarter inches in 
the fourth, one and three quarter inches in the fifth, and one inch in the 
sixth, from center to center. The distance apart, in the clear, for the hori- 
zontal supports, should be eighteen inches for the lower four spaces, and six- 
teen inches for the upper two spaces, if lumber of the ordinary widths is to 
be used. 

Heat may be applied by a steam coil as shown in Fig. 112, or hot air 
may be admitted from the regular air pipes of the heating system. The 
degree of heat should not be high as the seasoning process is apt to be too 
much hurried and so produce an unnecessary number of " season checks" 
by drying and consequently shrinking the outer portion of the lumber before 
the center has the opportunity to contract with it. Some have advocated the 
plan of standing the lumber on end, and then turning it "end for end" once 
a week. This causes an unnecessary amount of labor. If the lumber is 
placed in the racks as shown, it will not be necessary to even turn it over, 







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TRAVELING CRANE SPACE 



Fig. hi. — Plan of Loft over Pattern Shop. 



i 



THE PATTERN SHOP AND PATTERN STORAGE ROOM 173 

provided too high a temperature is not maintained. The necessity for a dry 
room is apparent from the fact that it is very difficult to obtain properly 
kiln-dried lumber fit to put into pattern work, whatever price we arc willing 
to pay for it. And unless we dry it ourselves we are never sure of its condition. 
Patterns arc too expensive to take any chances of improperly seasoned lumber. 
For convenience in passing lumber to and from the dry room, a trap 
door, as shown in Fig. in, may be made in the floor of the loft. Pattern 
lumber may be delivered on the machine shop floor, passed to the gallery 
by the traveling crane, then up through this trap door to the dry room. After 



Fig. 112. — Dry Room for Pattern Lumber. 

it is properly dried, it may be passed back to the pattern shop in the same 
way. Or, it may be passed in through the trap door over the pig iron storage 
space, and thence into the pattern shop. 

The pattern storage room is a continuation of the pattern shop, a door 
8 feet wide giving ample access to it. In the inner corner, next to the 
pattern shop, is a trap door 4 feet by 8, opening over the pig iron storage 
space, and at the other end of the room is a trap door 4 x 10 feet, opening 
over the flask room of the foundry. Over this trap door is a quick-acting 
hoist by which patterns may be readily lowered to the foundry, or brought 



i ;i MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 

back to the pattern storage room. This room is amply lighted so that patterns 
may be easily found, stored, or taken from the shelves as needed. 

The system of storing patterns is upon a series of shelves arranged so as 
to form alcoves connecting with a wide passageway in the center, the pattern 
racks being placed with the end against the wall, and regularly between the 
windows. Opposite the broad spaces in the walls where the pilasters are 
located, and space between windows is wider, the pattern racks are made of 
double width, and are used for the storage of larger patterns, which may be 
more conveniently stored on very broad shelves Should the patterns be 
generally of small size, so as to make narrower shelves advisable, the racks 
may be all made of single width and located without regard to the windows. 
In this case they are placed two feet from the wall. In the arrangement 
shown, the single racks have shelves 4 x 18 feet, and in the double racks the 
shelves ere : 7 :5 fee:. Tees :he T::er style will accommodate patterns 
:"::::: fieir :. nine fee: in Tnmh. 

At the end of the pattern storage room, next to the foundry, a space is 
left clear for the care and storage of patterns too large for placing upon the 
shelves. It will, of course, be understood that in even- shop special arrange- 
ments must be made for the care of patterns peculiar to the kind of work 
done, and that the errangement here given is only such as may be useful in 
a general way, and that it is subject to whatever modification may be necessary 
to suit individual conditions. For instance, if there are many heavy patterns 
like lathe beds, planer beds, or engine beds etc, it will be necessary to provide 
a larger space for them, and also to arrange for readily lifting and moving 
them. A convenient method is to suspend an I-beam overhead, and upon 
this to run a trolley with a chain or rope hoist, by means cf which the patterns 
can be picked up and moved wherever they are wanted. These may be put 
up with branches and switches, s : : s to cover any desired space. 

If these large patterns are placed entirely upon the floor they will occupy 
too much valuable seize. They nee; be arranged in this manner: One bed 
pattern may He upon strips not less than an inch thick laid on the floor. Over 
this pattern are placed two or more trestles, high enough to clear it. Upon 
these a second pattern may be placed. Over this place still higher trestles, 
and upon them support a third pattern, and so on. The advantage of this 
method is that the patterns may be ah 7 rays eept in good condition and k "out- 
of-wind," while if , as is often done, strips are laid upon one pattern, and 
another pattern supported upon it, there is a strong probability that it will be 
marred and injured, or warped out of shape. 

.rious forms of racks, both seK-supporting and attached to the building, 
have been devised. The common form used to be that of supporting the 
shelves by a series of posts placed four to eight feet apart, and spiking to these 



THE PATTERN SHOP AND PATTERN STORAGE ROOM 175 

horizontal strips, upon which the boards or planks forming the shelves were 
placed. Frequently a strip three or four inches high was placed around the 
shelves to prevent the patterns from falling off. This made a receptacle for 
dust and dirt which was not only disagreeable but difficult to get rid of. In 
this form of racks the numerous uprights obscured a good deal of light, and 
were very much in the way of conveniently handling patterns. 

Considering these conditions, the best arrangement of pattern racks seems 
to be of the forms shown in Fig. 113 and Fig. 114. The form shown in Fig. 




Fig. 113. — Pattern Storage Rack with Metal Frame with Wood Shelves. 

113 is composed of two heavy cast iron bases, into which are screwed pieces 
of 3-inch wrought iron pipe. Upon these are fitted cross supports of cast iron 
with rough-cored holes. They are held at any desired height by two set 
screws in each support. Upon these supports the shelves are built, their 
thickness being according to the weights of patterns to be stored. For ordi- 
nary patterns the shelves should be of ifinch planks, and the distance be- 
tween supports not over eight feet. Where heavy patterns are to be placed 
on the shelves the planks should be i"J inches thick, and the distance between 
supports reduced to about six feet. In this case set screws should not be 
depended upon to hold the cross supports in place. Pieces of wrought iron 



176 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 



pipe, large enough to easily slip over the upright supporting pipes, and cut 
the exact length necessary, should be used, by first placing one over the pipe 
and resting on the cast iron base. Then put on the cross support, then 
another piece of pipe, and so on to the top. The planks are fastened with 
heavy wood screws parsing up through the cross supports. The bases should 
be fastened to the floor with lag screws. 

If inconvenient to construct these tracks with iron supports as just de- 
scribed, they may be constructed entirely of wood. If this is to be done the 
uprights are fastened to the floor and also to the overhead timbers by nailing, 
or, still better, by iron knees and wood screws, so as to be held firmly in their 
proper position, as shown in Fig. 114. To these uprights are spiked cross 




Fig. 114. — Pattern Storage Rack, all Wood Construction. 

pieces or supports of the form shown, and upon these are laid plank shelves 
as described for the shelves when iron supports are used. If the patterns are 
very heavy, the cross supports may be let into recesses in the uprights, and 
fastened with through and through bolts. The proper distance between 
supports will be the same as with the iron construction of supports. For 
ordinary and usual conditions the vertical distances will be about as follows: 
From the floor to the top of the first shelf, two feet ; from the top of the first 



THE PATTERN SHOP AND PATTERN STORAGE ROOM 177 

shelf to the top of the second, twenty-two inches; to the next, eighteen inches; 
to the next, sixteen inches; to the next, fourteen inches; and to the top, twelve 
inches. Of course these shelves may be continued higher up than this, but 
on account of the difficulty of access the above arrangement would seem to 
be quite high enough. 

Several light step ladders should be provided for conveniently reaching 
the patterns on the upper shelves. Obviously, the heavier patterns will be 
placed on the lower shelves. Large gears, pulleys, balance wheels, etc., may 
be set on edge, in racks similar to those used for holding rolls of belting, but 
are somewhat more liable to become warped than if they are laid down flat 
on the shelves that are true and level. 

In the case of the double-width shelves, as called for in the plan, Fig. 109, 
there should be two upright pieces of wrought iron pipe to carry the cross 
supports, the latter being made of appropriate form, and having cored in it 
two holes, four feet apart, from center to center. A similar modification 
should be made in the wooden construction. For racks of 18 feet in 
length there should be three supports, the outer ones placed thirty inches from 
the ends, and the third one in the center. This will provide for three wrought 
iron pipe supports in a rack 4 feet by 18 feet, and for six supports to a rack 
that is 9 feet by 18 feet. 

One of the greatest conveniences of this system of shelves for storing 
patterns is the fact that they are free of access on all sides, with absolutely 
no obstruction whatever, either to light or the handling of patterns, while their 
appearance is much better than any of the older forms. Shelves should not 
be built against walls unless they are comparatively narrow, as the light will 
be so much obstructed as to prevent seeing the patterns at the back of the 
shelves. If built as herein described and located between the windows as 
shown, they offer little obstruction to the light, which passes comparatively 
free from side to side of the building. 



CHAPTER XXI 

THE FROX FOUNDRY 

Special conditions. Some early history of the foundry. Modern foundry appliances. Plan 
of the foundry". Tram car tracks. The transportation of materials. Charging cars. 
Elevator to cupolas. Blast apparatus. Electric motors. Bench work. Pneumatic 
hoists. Their capacity. The air compressor. Molding machines. Sand sifters and 
mixers. Molding pits. The cupolas. Foreman's office and storeroom. The heating 
apparatus. The shipping room. The pickling beds. The pickling vat. The cleaning 
room. The core room. The core oven. The flask room. The wash room. The 
water-closers. The lockers. 

Thx equipment of the iron foundry necessarily differs in many respects 
from that of the other departments heretofore considered, as to its product, 
its work, and the necessary arrangements for earning it on. These require- 
ments, while they have changed much since the earlier plants for this work 
were established, have not perhaps undergone so great a change in a general 
way as have those of the machine shop. The early plants were, of course, 
very crude and primitive affairs, and iron was often melted in crucibles some- 
what as brass is melted now. Most of the work done was of the plainest 
kind and little attention was paid to symmetrical or artistic effect. 

Earlv historv shows that the making of iron castings was one of the oldest 
mechanical industries of the country. In the year 1643 John Winthrop 
arrived in this countrv from England. bringing; with him the necessarv number 
of skilled workmen for this purpose, and built a small iron foundry in Lynn, 
Mass., and the fact that the first casting; which was made was "a small iron 
pot holding about a quart ?? shows the modest capacity of the foundry. The 
casting is said to have been made ''from native ore." 

Little progress seems to have been made for a considerable time in 
enlarging the original scope of the work from its early beginnings, so far as 
records of the facts are known. In 1735 an iron foundry was established in 
the little town of Carver. Mass.. and a second one was built in the year 1760. 
wherein the historic " Massachusetts Teakettle'' was cast. 

Another foundry was built in 1793, and was burned down in 1841. The 
proprietors of this foundry were Bowers & Pratt. A relative of the latter 
partner established a foundry in Wenham, Mass., and his son, at a later date, 

1-3 



THE IRON FOUNDRY 179 

built a foundry in Watcrtown, Mass., which was the original of the now 
well-known foundry of the firm of Walker & Pratt, for whom the author had 
the privilege of making the first drawings of their heating apparatus to be 
reproduced by the original photo-engraving process invented by Moss, and 
operated by the Moss Photo-Engraving Company, on Park Place, New York 
City. Following the gradual development of the iron-founding business from 
the early times is very interesting, but too long a story for the available 
space of these pages. 

In these later years the addition of the traveling crane, the pneumatic 
hoist, the application of electricity, the iron flasks, the sand blast system for 
cleaning castings, and similar improvements have changed many of the older 
methods, and rendered the work less laborious and the output much larger. 
At the same time the quality of the work, both in its practical and in its artistic 
features, has been greatly improved and more economically produced. 

The foundry floor has been particularly described in Chapter XI on floors, 
in the Part First on Machine Shop Construction, to which the reader is referred 
for detailed information on this point. 

Fig. 115 shows the general arrangement of the foundry and its equipment. 
The central portion is provided with a traveling crane, and under this and 
the two jib cranes shown the heavy molding and casting are done. Tram car 
tracks, located as shown, bring in any stock and material, such as sand, flasks, 
pig iron, coal, etc., as may be necessary, upon cars specially constructed to 
adapt them to each class of load to be carried. Turntables are provided at 
the intersection of the tracks, in preference to curves and switches, as they 
occupy much less room, do not require any more time to operate, and the 
cost is nearly the same, for equipment offering like facilities. The special 
construction of these tracks and their accessories will be particularly described 
in a future chapter on shop transportation. 

In bringing pig iron, coal, etc., to the cupolas the material is brought on 
the cars to the turntable scale in front of the elevator, and there it is weighed, 
then run upon the elevator, raised to the charging floor and the cars run upon 
the branch tracks, and thence to the cupolas, as shown in Fig. 116. The 
charging cars are specially constructed for this purpose, and are substantially 
the same as used by the Vilter Manufacturing Company in their foundry in 
Milwaukee, Wis. 

A rear elevation of one of these cars is shown in Fig. 117, and a side ele- 
vation in Fig. 118. The frame consists of two similar iron castings for sides, 
held together by cast iron cross rails bolted to them, as shown. The car 
body A is composed of 2-inch planks, lined with sheet iron, and supported 
by wrought iron, forged straps B, B, of U-shaped form, at the back and 
front, and by cast iron angle supports C, C, near the center. Upon these 



i So 



MACHIXE SHOP EQUIPMENT 




j 



THE IRON FOUNDRY 



181 



supports are formed downwardly-projecting lugs, by means of which the car 
body is pivoted by the rod D to the frame, as shown in Fig. 118. The greater 
part of the load is placed back of this pivot, thus holding the car body in a 
horizontal position. Pivoted to the rear end of the car body is a rack E, 
engaging a pinion on a horizontal shaft F, which has fixed upon its front end 



CUPOLAS 




Fig. i i 6. — Branch Tracks for Cars to run from Elevator to Cupola. 

the spur gear G, engaging the spur pinion H on the shaft /, which is squared 
on the front end for the application of a crank, by means of which the rear 
end of the car body may be raised and the contents of the car dumped. The 
dumping position is shown by dotted 
lines in Fig. 118. The car is of 
very simple construction; the gear 
and rack teeth are cast, the wheels 
and gears bored, and the hubs 
faced, but not turned on the out- 
side. Several of these cars should 
be provided, so that there may be 
no waiting on the charging floor 
for either pig iron, scrap iron, coal, 
or coke, during the progress of a 
heat, when time is valuable. 

In Fig. 115 the location of the 
cupolas is shown, and also that of FiG Il7 ._ Rear Elevation of charging Car . 

the blower and the blast pipes lead- 
ing from the latter to the cupolas. A motor is also located in the blower 
room, which is used to furnish power to run the blower, and also the eleva- 




::: 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 



tor. the tumbling barrels, and the machines in the chipping room. It nay 
be preferred to have two motors, one to be used only for running the blower 
and run for a few hours only when a heat is on, and the other constantly, for 
driving the machinery above mentioned. These motors may be located side 
by side in the blower room, as shown. The blower may be placed on the 
floor, but it is often advisable to locate it overhead, out of the way of dirt and 
dust and more nearly on a level with the tuyeres of the cupola 5 =<: that some 
of the curves in the blast pipes may be avoided, as this is i very important 
matter when the amount of air pressure is to be compared to the power nec- 
iry to generate it. as in this class of blowers it !s considerably more than is 
generally supposed, even by good mechanics. 




Fig iiS. — Side Elevation, of Charging Car. 

The motor, or one of them, may furnish power to operate the traveling 
crane by the old system of a square shaft ru nn ing the length of the bull : 
beside it and so providing power at any point in its travel ; but this method is 
a rather clumsy way to transmit power, and it is a much better syscem to have 
the traveling crane carry its own motor, the current being supplied :: :: in- 
flexible, pendant cables near the wall and out of the w-7 TViese r.nuld 
be placed on the side of the building opposite the cupolas, where there will 
be no obstruction to them and where they will be away from the exces- 
sive heat. 

The general molding floor of the foundry should have its work so arranged 
that the spaces : u :s : : : :he supporting columns will be devoted to the lighter 
floor work and the bench work, where crane ser 1:1 is not needed. 



THE IRON FOUNDRY 183 

is provided along one side as far as the heating apparatus (which occupies 
the outer front corner), for bench, or snap flask work. Here it will be found 
very convenient to use the compressed air hoists for floor work, as it will be 
in other parts of the plant, as the hoists may be suspended overhead and 
used not only for drawing the deeper patterns but /or turning over flasks, for 
it is now a demonstrated fact that in compressed air we have a very useful, 
convenient, and efficient power, which may be utilized in the foundry, perhaps 
to as good or better advantage than in any other department of the modern 
manufacturing plant. Its uses are many, and the conveniences with which 
it may be carried to any part of the floor for individual use, or for the lifting 
of quite heavy loads, renders it almost indispensable in the routine work of 
the foundry. The economy of its use may be readily appreciated when it is 
remembered that an air compressor provided with a cylinder 6 inches in 
diameter, and a storage tank 3 feet in diameter and 5 feet long, compressing 
air to 80 pounds per square inch, will furnish ample supply for a dozen hoists 
lifting 400 pounds or more each. 

In drawing patterns, turning small flasks, setting large cores, and similar 
work, these hoists may be suspended in any desired location, the rubber hose 
attached bringing a supply of compressed air, easily controlled by a simple 
valve. These hoists may be suspended from a trolley traveling on an over- 
head beam, so located as to be convenient to the work. Of course, larger 
hoists may be used when necessary, and they are quite as effective and econom- 
ical. Roughly speaking, a hoist with a 3-inch piston should lift 450 pounds; 
with a 4-inch piston, 800 pounds; with a 6-inch piston, 1,850 pounds; and 
with an 8-inch piston, 3,300 pounds. A supply of compressed air is very 
useful in the chipping room, where chipping tools may be very efficiently 
operated with it, and by its use one man may thereby do the work of at least 
two, and usually more. 

An air compressor may be located in the blower room, as indicated in 
Fig. 115, and operated by the motor situated there. A cylinder 12 inches in 
diameter will be ample for the ordinary uses of the foundry floor and for 
operating such tools as are necessary in the chipping room. It will require 
a tank about 4 feet in diameter and 8 to 10 feet in length. This may be 
situated over the air compressor so as not to occupy the floor space. Such a 
tank should, of course, be constructed on the same lines and of like materials 
as a steam boiler of similar size, and to withstand the same pressure per 
square inch. It should be remembered that under ordinary circumstances, if 
the air compressor is constructed on the plan of the boiler-feed pump, with a 
steam cylinder and an air cylinder, with one piston common to both, the 
proportions will be nearly these, viz.: steam cylinder, 6x8 inches, and air 
cylinder 10 x 8 inches. And also, that 90 pounds steam pressure will give 



184 MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 

about 65 pounds air pressure, with a piston velocity of 300 feet per minute. 
These figures are given as nearly correct and easily remembered. 

A large variety of molding machines are in the market, many of which are 
admirably designed to turn out a large quantity of work in a day, and to save 
much of the manual labor usually necessary. They are, of course, employed 
on comparatively plain work where the tamping of the sand may be easily 
done by forcing down upon it a comparatively flat surface. They are usually 
employed upon the lighter kinds of work. 

Molding machines are also made for molding the teeth of gear wheels of 
large dimensions, as well as large segments, and by their use much time is 
saved and the cost of large and expensive patterns for the gear teeth is avoided. 
There are also molding machines for pulleys, which are valuable as a part of 
the foundry equipment, and with a proper supply of rims and spiders this 
work is much simplified and the costs reduced. 

These machines must be selected and provided in accordance with the 
particular class of work to be done, as their utility will depend almost entirely 
upon this matter. 

Sand sifters and sand mixers are now made so as to be mounted upon a 
tram car and are driven by a small electric motor attached to them, the machine 
being thus rendered complete in itself, and may be easily moved to any part 
of the foundry desired and, when not in use, run out of the way. They will 
be found very convenient on nearly all classes of work, and may supersede the 
usual hand riddles almost entirely, saving much of the molder's time and 
producing better castings, as more sifted sand is likely to be used if the molder 
is not obliged to sift it by hand. Besides, being sifted close at hand, it is not 
so liable to contain foreign matter as if it is sifted at one point and carried 
to different parts of the foundry where it may be needed. 

The deep molding pits are located as shown by dotted lines in Fig. 115, 
one 8 x 12 feet, and the other 12 x 18 feet. These may be of any required 
depth, but more usually the smaller one would be about 5 feet and the larger 
one about 8 feet. All these dimensions should, of course, be made according 
to the character, size, and the weight of the larger castings to be made. The 
walls and floors of the pits should be constructed according to the directions 
given in the chapter on Shop Floor Construction, in Part First of the work. 
These pits will be found very useful in molding large pieces wherein a very 
deep nowel flask would be required, and which would necessarily raise them 
several feet higher on the floor than would be the case where a pit is made use 
of. Such pieces, which may not be cast on their side, and weighing, say, over 
4 tons, will usually be found fit subjects for pit molding. 

It will be noticed that the cupolas have been located within the space of 
the foundry proper. This, of course, will occupy considerable room on the 



THE IRON FOUNDRY 185 

foundry floor. They are so placed in many foundries, this being a more 
desirable location in several respects. In this case they come nearer to the 
cranes, which are supported from the main columns, and afford a convenient 
means of transferring a ladle of melted iron from the cupola front to the cars, 
and thence by the track to any point in the foundry, or from the cranes over 
to the traveling crane and thence to any part of the central space of the floor. 
The cupolas may be located in the cleaning room and the blower room space, 
and thereby save about 140 square feet of molding floor space. In this case 
the cranes will be placed closer to the wall, but yet with sufficient reach to 
pass ladles of melted iron to the car track, or to the traveling crane. 

If this disposition is made the location of the tumbling barrels will need 
to be changed, placing one at the front of the room. If it is found necessary, 
the motors and the air compressor may be placed on the charging floor, where 
there is ample room for them. Even the blower may be located there, for 
the purpose of affording more space on the first floor, a partition dividing 
them from the charging floor proper. The stairs also may be placed at right 
angles to their position as shown, for the purpose of affording any specially 
desired location for the first-floor equipment. In case the cupolas are placed 
in the cleaning room and blower room space, it may be advisable to run a 
car track immediately in front of them, connecting at each end with the trans- 
verse tracks by the usual turntables, and by which means ladles of melted 
iron may be transferred to the central space under the traveling crane by 
taking the route either to the right or left, as may be the shorter distance. 
However, many will prefer the jib crane for this service, as being quick, effi- 
cient, and safe. 

In the back corner of the main part of the foundry proper is the foreman's 
office, and adjoining it is a storeroom for the various small articles, tools, etc., 
necessary for almost daily issue, and which the foreman of a foundry of this 
size will probably find necessary to have under his personal control, although 
it will be advisable to have an employee in the office who is conversant wdth 
these matters, and to act as a bookkeeper, in order that the foreman's time 
may not be too much taken up with these matters of routine details. 

In the front corner, on the outer side, is located the heating apparatus, 
which has been previously described in the general chapter on Heating, in Part 
First on Shop Construction. If preferred, it might as well be located in the 
corner next to the flask room. This would be convenient if more bench room 
was required for snap flask work. 

The chipping room is provided with the usual benches, having a sufficient 
number of vises on them to accommodate the work requiring hand chipping. 
Sprues are cut off in the sprue cutter where this can be done by such a machine. 
The three emery wheels will do much of the small finishing on the castings, 



i86 MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 

while the pneumatic chipping tools will do very much of the work on the heavy 
ngs. 
Pickling beds are provided for, as shown on the plan, Fig. 119. These 



castings. 






PM 






o 

t-H 





iM 



PQ 



P* 



in 



> 



should be so constructed that the pickling solution may drain off into a recep- 
tacle where it may be saved and used again, while the water used in washing 



THE IRON FOUNDRY 187 

the castings after pickling, and the burned sand and scale coming from the 
castings, will go into another receptacle, where the sand and scale may be 
retained and the water flow into the sewer. 

A very efficient method of accomplishing these results is in use in the new 
foundry of the Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Company, Providence, R. I., 
and with some necessary modification it is shown on an enlarged scale in the 
plan Fig. 119, and in vertical, longitudinal section in Fig. 120. The pickling 
beds are built of 2-inch plank, supported on timbers 4x6 inches, placed not 
over 4 feet centers, and have at both sides and at the upper end a plank 
8 inches high. This bed is lined with sheet lead of sufficient thickness to not 
be easily cut through by laying castings upon it. 

Very heavy castings may rest upon pieces of board laid upon the lead for 
its protection. The lead should not be thinner than an eighth of an inch for 
ordinary uses. The pickle bed inclines toward the drainage system a quarter 
of an inch to the foot. The pickling solution or wash water dripping from 
the castings upon the pickling bed flows to the lower end, and upon a narrow 
tilting table A, which directs its course as may be desired. In the position 
shown on the right of the drawing it will run the pickling solution into a trans- 
verse conduit, from which it flows into the pickle trough, where it may be 
dipped up to put on other castings. When the castings are sufficiently pickled 
and it is desired to wash them, the hose is brought into use and the tilting 
table A is placed in the position shown on the left in Fig. 120, and the wash 
water flows into the settling chamber. Considerably above the bottom of 
this chamber a drainage pipe leads to the sewer. All sand or scale which 
passes down from the washing process drops to the bottom of the settling 
chamber, from whence it is cleared out as often as necessary through the man- 
hole between the car tracks, as shown. A cast iron plate covers the settling 
chamber, supporting the car tracks passing over it, as well as the manhole 
cover. 

Near the pickling beds is located the pickling vat, in which small castings 
may be immersed until sufficiently pickled, then placed upon the pickling beds 
to drain and be washed. This is constructed of planks and lined with lead, 
the same as the pickling beds. Concrete construction may be used if desired. 

An overhead trolley and hoist should be placed over the pickling beds, 
for removing castings from the cars and transferring them to the bed on the 
right or left, as may be desired, and back to the car when they are finally 
washed. Another similar overhead trolley should be placed in the center of 
the room for lifting castings to and from the floor and cars. These two trolley 
beams may be connected if desired, and run as one system. 

The hoists may be operated by compressed air, in the same manner as 
those in the foundry proper. If the sand blast process is to be used for cleaning 



188 MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 

castings it will be necessary to enclose a space of sufficient size in which to 
operate it, in order to prevent the disagreeable dust created by its use, pro- 
vided the high velocity usually used is to be arranged for. There is, however, 
a sand blast apparatus made in Germany which uses a very coarse sand at a 
comparatively low velocity, which appears to be a success, and does not require 
to be operated in a close room. 

The core room is provided with benches on two sides, and the usual 
form of core oven, which is fired from a pit formed in the floor of the foundry 
proper, by which arrangement the entire height from the core room floor is 
utilized for the cars upon which the cores are arranged and run into the oven 
from the floor level. The core oven may have its entire front closed' with 
sheet iron doors, running up out of the way; and upon the inner sides of the 
oven walls a series of supporting bars, permitting cars to run in, one above 
the other, their front ends being suspended on overhead trolley beams when 
they are drawn out. By this means the upper portions of the core oven may 
be better utilized and smaller lots of cores may be run in and baked at a time ; 
or, the oven may be divided by a vertical partition and one side used for a 
large car, rilling the entire space, and the other side arranged with shelf-like 
cars or racks, for small lots of cores. Separate doors should be provided to 
close each section so as not to expose one section to cold air when cores are 
to be put in or taken out of the other. By this arrangement much more work 
may be baked than if the whole front is to be opened at once. The doors 
may swing upon hinges if there is a lack of height for lifting doors, although 
the latter, properly balanced, form a very convenient arrangement, and not 
in the way when the doors are opened. 

The flask room requires no special arrangement or equipment beyond 
the car track and its cars for carrying flasks to and from the molding floor, 
unless a very considerable number of the flasks are of small and medium 
sizes, when they might be conveniently stored upon a gallery floor, which 
might extend nearly around the room. Flasks could be quickly and con- 
veniently passed to and from this gallery by means of a pneumatic hoist. By 
this means the storage capacity of the room could be increased at least 50 per 
cent, perhaps more. The alcove arrangement of flasks is very convenient for 
the purpose of easily reaching any size flasks needed. Thus, groups of two 
piles of flasks, backs together, may be piled up to any convenient height, 
with a passage between these groups, flasks of similar size forming each pile 
when possible. A little study of this arrangement will save much unnecessary 
labor in handling the flasks when wanted. 

The wash room is located in one of the outer corners of the foundry 
proper, as shown in Fig. 115, and has adjoining it the water-closets, and next 
to these the lockers for the use of the employees. The water-closets should 



THE IRON FOUNDRY 



189 



be so arranged as to be flushed automatically, and a continual supply of 
running water be provided for the urinals. The washing sinks are of cast iron 
and arranged with an individual supply of water from a pipe running along 
above them. One of these sinks is shown in perspective in Fig. 121. By 




o 

en 

13 

'd 

• r-t 

> 

• •-> 






a 

• i— 1 

en 



u 



o 

t-H 



this method of water supply each man may have clean water, and still the 
expense of separate wash bowls is avoided. The plentiful supply of fresh 
water is nearly always appreciated by the men, although the author once knew 
of a shop in which a similar arrangement for their cleanliness was made and 
the men refused to use it, preferring to wash in the common pool of not over- 
clean water in which all the rest of the force did the same. It has been said 



::•: 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 



that "there is no accounting for taste," and this may be a case in point. Cer- 
tain i: i= '.:.i: :he '-. _.-.":.'. em: :i:::: :: sn:r : ~T.tr; m: mmazerf i:- r. :: 
always ar :: : - : . :. : •.- :. :he ::.".:;::! 

The locker; ire :: t::" :. ..7.. .7:1. ii: 1:7 :: :he iseik iimenskn; :':: 
such ust :'..:i: if :: m:he= iee: :: inznef .7 m: 7: ir_:r_e= ::.ri 7/. 
width might be decreased to 15 inches and still provide ample room. They 
are placed in :: r i. :.::e eiek ::ne: .:.:_ ::.; r~: :; --5 „.-. -'.;__- _- .-: biik 
back for economy of space. In the plan jost descrihed it will be noticed 
that the lockers, the wash room and the water-closets are each separated from 
the other. In some respects this is not as convenient as it will be to have the 
lockers arranged in ike Trash :>;•:: r::n 1 r_"_ir. is 5':. :— r. in Fir ::: The 




tlG 121 1 



amount of space and the eroense necessary ire : 
but the latter arrangement will probably be piei 
era! ; " 5 be: n c more convenient to have their' lo 
TT3. sh up, and it will cause '. - = : : onfuskm in rani 
to the other, at a time -.:.-::. every :ne :s in e h 
out in the ;h:r:es: possible time, and the capac 
ally taxed to its fulles: errenr. 



. : e : : 



CHAPTER XXII 

THE FORGE SHOP 

Its present restricted sphere. Improved facilities. Case-hardening and tempering. The 
addition of machine tools to its equipment. The proper location of the forge shop. 
Its special construction. Transportation of stock and material. Coal and bar stock 
storage. Foreman's office. Portable scale. Forge fires. The down-draft system. 
Construction of forges. The blower. Blast pipes. Arrangement of blast apparatus. 
Steam hammers. Drop presses. Special heating furnaces. Annealing and case-hard- 
ening furnace. Detailed description. Cutting-off machine. Power hack saws. The 
cold saw. Heavy shear. Heavy turret lathe. The forge lathe. Work benches. 
Steam supply. Compressed air. Electric motor drive. Jib crane. Overhead trolleys. 
Pneumatic hoists. Bar stock storage rack. Shop rack for bar stock. The wash 
room. The water-closets. The lockers. Compactness of the design. 

It is undoubtedly true that since the very general introduction of turret 
lathes, forming lathes, and the large variety of similar machines now in use 
in almost every machine shop making any pretense to modern equipment and 
up-to-date methods of doing work, the forge shop has lost considerable of its 
importance as one of the indispensable departments upon which the machinist 
of former times very largely depended for much of his material for the better 
classes of work. The introduction of steel castings, malleable iron castings, 
and other similar materials, superseding in many cases the old-time forgings, 
has also been an important factor in the same direction, and has decreased 
the cost of materials of complicated form, and at the same time provided the 
machinist with materials which have admirably answered the purpose as to 
strength, and lessened the amount of machining necessary for their practical 
use. 

And yet, while the forge shop may have decreased in the matter of im- 
portance in the making of forgings, there will always remain the demand of 
the machine shop for a certain amount of strictly machine forgings of iron 
and steel which cannot be met by any other material. Many great and im- 
portant advances have been made in forging by use of improved hammers, 
by dies in connection with them, and by the process of drop forging, yet there 
is a large demand for forgings requiring the services of the skilled machine 
forger with his expertness in hand forging, as well as his technical knowledge 

191 



i92 MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 

of handling steel of various qualities, his expert knowledge of how to produce 
forgings of complicated and intricate forms, and the thousand and one condi- 
tions and requirements demanded in successfully bringing out such work, 
correct in form and structure, and within a reasonable cost. 

In the matter of case-hardening and tempering the forge shop department 
has increased materially, as there has never been a time in the past when har- 
dened and ground steel work has been as much used in the better qualities of 
machine construction as at present; and case-hardening has reached such an 
extent that it is rare to find nuts, cap screws, and the like on any well-constructed 
machine that are not protected from injury by this valuable process. 

While the actual forging work of the forge shop has decreased its scope, 
it has in a general way much increased in volume, since it is now customary 
to add to its equipment several machine tools, such as cutting-ofi: machines, 
forge lathes, heavy turret lathes, cold saws, power hack saws, and other similar 
machines for roughing out work, which in many instances can be much more 
economically done by these methods than by confining the operations to forging 
under the hammer. In this case the appropriate machines for these purposes 
are included in the equipment of the forge shop and located as will be presently 
described, and as shown on the plan in Fig. 123. 

The foundry floor, the engine foundation, and many of the foundations 
for machines in the machine shop, should be kept as free from jar, and from 
shocks sufficiently strong to disturb the ground by vibrations, as possible. 
For this reason the forge shop is placed as far from these buildings as may be 
convenient; therefore, in the rear corner of the plant, and opposite the rear 
end of the machine shop. The spur track from the railroad, which supplies 
shipping facilities and brings to the plant the raw materials necessary for its 
use, runs across the rear end of the group of buildings, in the rear of the 
machine shop and storehouse. It continues in a curve around the rear corner 
and up the side to the foundry gate, rising, as it goes to a height sufficient for 
conveniently dumping coal, coke, molding sand, etc., into the storage sheds 
located along that side, the first of which is shown at the left of the forge shop 
in Fig. 123. The curve of the railroad track cuts off somewhat of this rear 
corner of the building space and therefore the forge shop is located far enough 
from the rear line to accommodate it, and the space so left is utilized for a 
one-story building containing a space for the forge coal, another for bar stock 
storage, and the wash room and water-closets. 

The forge shop is, like the other buildings of the plant, built of brick, 
with steel roof construction, the roof trusses being supported in the center by 
steel columns. It is lighted, not only from the side windows, but from those 
in the monitor roof, the sashes of which are hung on pivots and controlled by 
cords reaching nearly to the floor, by which they may be operated when neces- 



THE FORGE SHOP 



J 93 



sary for ventilation. The general plan of the forge shop is clearly shown in 
Fig. 123, which also shows the contiguous buildings and their positions in 
reference to the forge shop, as well as the location of the railroad track, and 




194 MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 

:zt rri~ c.v: ::: :_: ; : irjirirjig :':iLs iepirrzien: — :::; :':.- :},:.: :ii tracks in the 
rear and the other departments toward the front of the plant. 

For convenience in bringing in stock and taking out finished work the 
tram car tracks run nearly midway through the forge shop, as shown, and 
are connected by their branches with the foundry, the machine shop, storage 
sheds, and practically all departments of the plant, as well as at three points 
with the railroad track, two of these being shown on the plan. 

The foreman's office is located in the front corner of the shop, and has 
connected with it the usual foreman's store closet for such minor supplies as 
are more conveniently kept there than in the general storeroom near the offices. 
A zxed desk furnishes a convenient place for spreading out drawings, and a 
private desk is provided for the foreman's personal use. Outside of the office 
is a forge shop scale for weighing stock and forgings. This scale should be 
mounted on wheels so that it can be readily moved to any part of the shop 
where it may be needed. 

Along the outer wall of the shop are located five regular forge fires having 
chimney flues built into the wall for their accommodation. These latter will 
not be necessary if the system of down-draft forges is used. This form of 
forge has several good qualities, not the least of which is that it offers less 
obstruction in ha n dli n g large pieces of work, as it may be conveniently placed 
at a distance from the wall if desired, and will furnish quite as good ventilating 
facilities in clearing the shop of coal gas as those connected with separate 
chimney s The draft may be increased or decreased at the will of the operator, 
particularly in the case of forges manufactured by the Buffalo Forge Company, 
in which a hinged and adjustable hood may be closed down over a fresh fire 
and raised for the handling of the work to be heated, as may be desired. If 
these down-draft forges are used it will be necessary to provide an exhaust 
fan with the proper connecting pipes for carrying off the smoke and gases, 
which may be delivered to one chimney, thus avoiding the expense of building 
the other four. Such an arrangement is very clean and wholesome for the 
workmen, when compared with the method shown, but considerably more 
expensive in its first cost, as well as i^uiring extra power to operate it. 

The forges shown on the plan should be of such construction that the 
tuyeres may be readily attached and detached when necessary, for cleaning 
or for repairs. They should have such a form of bottom valve or gate as to 
readily discharge the clinkers or slag that may find its way down to it These 
forges are usually constructed of cast iron and supported upon four legs, so as 
to give convenient access beneath them for cleaning, attaching the blast pipe, 
repairing, etc. Each should have, cast with it, or attached to it, two narrow 
troughs, ninning the length of its front, or shortest side, for holding coal and 
water. Many excellent ones are in the market and can be purchased more 



THE FORGE SHOP 195 

economically than they can be built on the premises. The blast pipe should 
be arranged to slide on and off easily, in case it is necessary to disconnect it 
for cleaning or repairs, and it should be provided with a regulating valve or 
gate, fitting as nearly air-tight as may be, and operated by a lever conveniently 
located within the reach of the operator. These forges are usually made of 
rectangular form, but large fires are often made upon a circular forge, whose 
sides extend to the floor. They need not necessarily be provided with the 
water and coal troughs as mentioned above, as they are usually used for 
heating work for the steam hammers, drop presses, and similar large work, 
rather than for tempering, tool forging, or small work of this class. 

The blast for these forges, for the heating furnace, for the drop presses, 
and for the case-hardening and annealing furnace, is furnished by a fan blower 
designed for a pressure necessary for forge work, and having an outlet of six 
inches in diameter, equivalent to a No. 3 Sturtevant steel pressure blower, 
which is admirably adapted for this purpose. It should be located over the 
bench near the forges, at the front end of the shop, so that there may be no 
unnecessary turns or bends in the pipe leading to the forges. These pipes 
should be placed along the walls near the floor, but never beneath it. In one 
shop the author saw blast pipes, composed of vitrified drain tiles, the joints 
made with Portland cement, and laid less than a foot beneath the surface of 
a dirt floor of the forge shop, and at one point passing directly under a bolt 
heading machine. 

As might have been expected, the jar of the shop floor broke up the pipes 
and destroyed their usefulness. The blast pipes should be constructed of 
heavy galvanized iron, well fitted and fastened, and as nearly air-tight as may 
be. They should be easy of access, for the possible connection of additional 
pipes and for convenience of making repairs, which will have to be made 
sooner or later. They might be placed six or seven feet high, and along the 
walls, but this position will necessitate about thirty feet of additional pipe, 
increasing the friction of the air and consequently the power required, with 
no especially compensating gains other than getting the pipes up out of the 
way somewhat. 

Some of the more important rules for setting up and connecting forge 
blowers may be here given. Place the blower as near as possible to the forges. 
Make the pipe connections as direct as possible. If bends or elbows are 
absolutely necessary, make the curves of large radius, and with no abrupt 
angles ; the inside radius of an elbow should not be less than twice the diameter 
of the pipe. Have the aggregate areas of all the outlet pipes at least equal 
to the delivery pipe at the blower. If the pipes must carry the air over one 
hundred feet, speed up the blower proportionately above the figures given in 
the manufacturers' catalogue. In any event, the blower should be run at 



196 MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 

such a speed as will give four to five ounces pressure at the tuyeres, not less 
than four ounces at the forge farthest from the blower. 

The blower is driven from a line shaft running the length of the shop 
near its center. In front of the first fire is located a large steam hammer of 
the arched pattern, and capable of handling work up to 10 inches in diameter. 
At the next fire is a smaller, single-column steam hammer of about half the 
capacity. The necessity of providing the larger hammer will be a matter to 
be decided by the size of the largest forgings to be made. For instance, if 
only a few forgings which come up to its capacity are to be made, it will be 
more economical to purchase them of some large forge shop than to provide 
a large hammer that may be idle much of the time. The smaller hammer 
should be provided for even moderate-sized work, for any plant of modern 
pretensions. 

Next to the small hammer two drop presses are located, with a special 
heating furnace for use in connection with them. These drops should carry 
hammers weighing from 150 to 600 pounds, according to the work which they 
are to do. 

The heating furnace need not be over 30 inches square outside, built 
with a cast iron shell lined with fire bricks, supported on four cast iron legs, 
and provided with a vertical sliding, balanced door in front. The heating 
chamber will be about 20 inches square and from 10 to 12 inches high. A 
blast pipe leads up to it, and a smoke pipe from its rear side leads to the nearest 
chimney. Such a furnace will heat work for drop forging much more economi- 
cally and satisfactorily than the usual open forge fire. They may be purchased 
at a very moderate cost. 

The forge fires not occupied with steam hammer work will be used for 
ordinary hand forging, tool forging, tool dressing, tempering, and similar work. 
Where much tempering of special work is necessary, that is, when a large 
number of pieces of the regular product of the plant is to be so treated, special 
arrangements as to heating furnaces, dipping baths, etc., must be provided, 
and in many cases special automatic heating and hardening furnaces are 
employed. Obviously, the great variety of this class of work precludes a 
detailed description in this chapter. 

Near the end wall, at the rear, is located an annealing and case-hardening 
furnace of ample capacity. As this will be built on the premises, and as 
information in reference to its requirements and its construction may not be 
readily available, drawings have been made showing the details of its construc- 
tion and giving all necessary dimensions. 

While this is for a furnace of quite large capacity for a machine shop plant, 
a smaller one may be readily constructed on proportionate dimensions, with 
good and practical results. If it is to be of say one half these dimensions, or one 



THE FORGE SHOP 



197 



fourth the capacity, the lower heating ducts will be single instead of double, 
and it will be preferable to build it with a cast iron casing inclosing all four 
sides, forming the door frames, and the separate pieces being bolted together 
at the corners, instead of having the brickwork held together by binders and 
rods as shown in the drawings. 

The construction is clearly shown in Figs. 124, 125, and 126, being 
respectively a front, side, and a 
rear elevation. Fig. 127 is a cross- 
section through the fire box A, show- 
ing the bridge wall B, the form of 
the covering arch F, and the position 
of the blast pipe G. Fig. 128 is a 
longitudinal section showing the fire 
box A, heating chamber C, heating 
ducts D, D, and sections of the front 
and rear doors. Fig. 129 is a cross- 
section through the heating chamber 
C, the heating ducts D, D, dividing 
wall M, and the main door N. The 
foundation] should be laid deep 
enough to support the weight of the 
furnace and its charge, and will be quite similar to that provided for boiler set- 
tings. The shaded portions indicate fire bricks, the balance being ordinary, 
hard, red bricks. The grate bars are of any convenient pattern, but must 




i=5S--- 




|G 






II / 
11/ 

LU 



Fig. 124. — Front Elevation of Annealing and 
Case-hardening Furnace 




125. — Side Elevation of Annealing and Case-hardening Furnace. 



have ample air spaces so as not to impede the air blast delivered through the 
blast pipe G. The top arch is of fire brick and is carried all the way through 
both front and back walls, for convenience in making repairs upon it. 



: : : 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 



The floor of the heating chamber is composed of fire brick tiles 5 inches 
thick, 9 inches wide y and 24 inches long, their outer ends supported bv the 

inwardly projecting side walls, and their inner ends by the dividing wall M. 

They are laid about an inch apart so 
ro permit the gases and smoke to 
pass down between them to the heat- 
ing ducts D. D, and out through the 
smoke pipe attached to the rear door 
L. The frame and door of the fire 
box are from the same pattern as 
the rear door K, while the frame of 
the ash pit door /, and the smoke 
door L, are from the same pattern. 
TJir ioors are different, of course as 
:Iir i: :r 1 zmst be provided with a 
circular sleeve to which the smoke 
pipe is attached* its other end con- 

_ lie- .1.1 : - - iz r z . nza. :e r r 

necting with the nearest chimney. 
The main door N 7 through which the annealing boxes are introduced and 







l and fitted with a fire-brick lining, per- 
peek hole/' 7 and held in place by four 




45 



fflffl 



■■■■■Ml— W ■■ 



::::::: is :: r: rcial : msm::::: 
I orated by a circular opening or 
bolts (as shown in Fig 125 . which 
pass through iron straps on the 
inside of the fire brick linrm 
The stopper P is of tubular form 
and has an inwardly-projecting 
flange at its inner end for the 
:: :. \ ::.: :':.: Lmmi: 
which is composed of fire c 
_ :. :kri ir_ is = :m:m is z :s~: :^r 
while it is slightly wet. This 
=::mer :_:; :.e rencrfi 1: my 
time to obtain a view of the in: 

: :z . :_: . ; m Lits 

:m:m:i :'.:m: 1 ':.-:.: ;- ill me 
doors are tightly closed and the 

he fire is well under way, one charge of 

coal being usually sufE ait for the heat after the furnace has been heated up. 

The blast pipe furnishing the blast for the forges will also supply this 

furnace, the pressure required being the sarr. ill be connected to the 

fixture G located in the wall of the ash pit for that purp<: 




Fig. :;- — Section through Fire Box, Ac .:' Annealing 
and Case-haxdenins Furnace. 




THE FORCiK SHOP 



199 



Such a furnace as has just been described will, if properly built, and with 
occasional repairs to the fire brick lining, last many years. The author knows 
of one which was built twenty years ago that is in serviceable condition at the 
present time. 

On the opposite side of the central columns is located the group of ma- 
chines for roughing out stock, the first being a heavy cutting-off machine 
capable of taking in stock up to six inches in diameter and cutting it off to any 
required length. In this machine there should be two tools fed automatically, 
and the machine should be provided with a convenient speed-changing device 
whereby the surface cutting speed may be maintained constant at all diameters, 
as this latter feature will materially increase the output of the machine. 




Fig. 128. — Longitudinal Section of Annealing and Case-hardening Furnace. 

Next to this machine are two cutting-off machines of a capacity for 
4-inch stock and arranged similarly to the larger machine. They are so 
placed as to be conveniently operated by one man. 

Next to these machines are two power hack saws, provided for cutting 
off square and flat stock. These should carry from 12 to 15 inch saws, and 
while apparently slow-working machines are capable of cutting off a large 
quantity of stock in proportion to the labor cost of attendance. 

Located near the large cutting-off machine is the cold saw, which will 
serve for stock or forgings beyond the capacity of the cutting-off machine or 
the power hack saws, and will often save much valuable time in finishing up 
a forging. The saws in these machines are from 12 to 40 inches in diameter, 
the former size cutting off stock up to 3J inches in diameter, and the latter 
handling 13-inch stock. For this case the saw should be 20 inches in diameter, 
and capable of cutting off 7^-inch stock. There are many of these saws in 
the market and apparently not very much choice between them, all conditions 
being considered. 



:zc 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 




The shear, located next to the cold saw, is not generally as much used as 
before the power hack saw came into notice, yet in certain classes of rough 
work it is very useful and operates quickly. It should be able to cut off 
round stock up to one inch, square stock to the same size, and flat stock to 
half inch by two. 

In the heavy turret lathe much work may be roughed out from the bar 
and sent to the machine shop in a more satisfactory condition than if it had 

been forged, and at the same time 
it will do the work more economi- 
cally. It should take in stock up 
to 3 inches in diameter and be pro- 
vided with a heavy, open, hexagonal 
turret, bored so as to allow the stock 
to pass entirely through it if neces- 
sary. If should also be provided 
with heavy roughing tools somewhat 
similar to box tools, as well as a 
heavy cutting-ofl slide adjustably 
supported on the bed. 

The forge lathe, located next 
to the turret lathe, will be useful in 
rough-turning spindles and similar 
heavy work, and doing it much cheaper than forging the work down to close 
dimensions. It should be built for cuts of 6 or 8 to the inch, and a cutting 
speed from ioo feet per minute and slower. 

A short work bench and vise is provided at each end of the line of forges 
for the convenience of the blacksmiths, and a much longer one on the opposite 
side for the men running the machine tools, which should have three vises 
upon it. 

A supply of steam will be needed for the steam hammers, and may be 
brought from the power house in a conduit, the pipes being properly protected 
by a non-conducting covering to prevent, as far as possible, the loss of heat. 
But these hammers may be operated by compressed air, which will not be 
subjected to such loss. And as power will be required to run the line shafting 
driving the various machines, it may be more economical to bring in a current 
of electricity with which to drive one or more motors, by which the line shafting 
may be driven and from which a small air compressor may be operated, thus 
bringing the power within the building and under the control of the foreman 
in charge of it. This plan would seem more advisable than the other. If an 
air compressor is used it may be located between the shear and the scale, and 
the reservoir connected with it placed directly overhead. 



Fig. 129 — Section through Heating Chamber of 
Annealing and Case-hardening Furnace. 




THE FORGE SHOP 201 

If an electric motor is used to drive the line shaft it will be convenient to 
place it overhead and near the center of the shaft, on a platform erected for 
the purpose, rather than to place it on the floor level, where it will be subjected 
to dirt and accidental injury. 

A jib crane may be erected to serve the large steam hammer and an over- 
head trolley for the smaller one, the latter being the more economical of the 
two, and will be found nearly as convenient for comparatively light weights. 
The I-beams carrying the trolley and hoist should run from a point nearly 
over the center of the forge to a point close to the left side of the hammer, 
as seen on the plan. 

Pneumatic hoists may be conveniently used not only on this trolley but in 
a similar way at the forge lathe and over some of the other machines for 
handling heavy bars. They work quickly, are easily handled, and when 
necessary may be readily moved from place to place. 

The space for bar stock is located conveniently to the railroad track and 
the tram car track, and contains two racks for bar stock, the larger one for 
full length bars of iron and machine steel, and the smaller one for ordinary 
cast steel and tool steel bars. The larger of these racks is showm in perspective 
in Fig. 130. This is constructed of oak timbers formed into a rectangular 
frame, strongly bolted together and resting on good foundations capable of 
supporting the heavy weights of stock likely to be placed in the racks. Three 
of these frames are erected, six or seven feet apart and braced by cross braces 
as show T n. The timbers should be 6 inches square and provided with iron 
supports for the bar stock. These should be spaced further apart at the 
bottom than at the top, the bottom space being, say, fifteen inches, and the 
top space eight inches, center to center of cross bars. These supports should 
be flat, say f by i\ inch for the upper three; for the next two, | by if; and the 
two lower ones, 1 inch by 2. It may be preferred to make the three or four 
lower supports of if -inch round steel, upon which are placed pieces of i|-inch 
gas pipe, turning freely, and so facilitating the running in and out of heavy 
bars. As seen in the engraving, the right-hand end of the frames may be 
securely bolted to the brick walls, and the cross braces on this end be omitted. 
At the opposite, or front end of the frames, the sill timber projects from the 
front of the frame about three feet, and upon this are erected heavy cast iron 
supports, of the form shown, which will be found very convenient for holding 
heavy bars, as they are open at the front, and bars may be readily lifted from 
the tram cars to them. Experience has shown this to be a very convenient, 
useful, and substantial form of bar stock rack. In place of wooden timbers 
cast iron supports may be used, but the cost will be much greater and the 
results not enough better to compensate for the added expense. 

The smaller rack is built on the same plan, and may be constructed with 



202 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 



or without the cast iron racks in front of it. It should have substantial cross 
braces between its frames, and also be securely braced from the brick wall. 
For a shop rack the form shown in Fig. 131 will be found very convenient. 





\ 


\ 


N 




A 


A 






a 
o 



- 

to 

- 
z 

-1 

to 

c 

"S 

o 

— > 
■Si 



u 

o 

=3 






o 

M 

'- 



The A-shaped supports are of cast iron, securely braced by cross braces bolted 
on as shown. The base of the supports might be made relatively narrower 
than shown in the drawing without endangering their stability. Such a rack 



THE FORGE SHOP 



203 



may be made of any number of supports and placed at any desired intervals 
apart that the work may require. Once we have the pattern, we may make 
as many castings as we choose and arrange them to suit any existing conditions. 
Usually they should not be over 5 feet high, unless rather small and light 
stock is to be placed on the upper supports. The lower projecting supports 
may be about 10 inches long and the top ones about 7 inches. 

The wash room is located in one of the rear corners, and in connection 
with the water-closets, which open out of it. A single wash sink of similar 
construction to the one illustrated and described in the article on foundry 
equipment is provided, and the individual lockers for the use of the men, and 
built of expanded metal, are arranged on both sides of the room in the usual 




Fig. 131. — Small Rack for Ordinary Cast Steel and Tool Steel Bars. 



manner. In the water-closets six urinals and four closet seats are provided, 
the latter protected by double-hinged swinging doors, and the former separated 
by dividing partitions two feet wide. Both should be provided with an ample 
supply of water for automatically flushing them. The windows lighting the 
wash room and water-closets are placed high enough in the wall so as not to 
interfere with the lockers or the urinals. 

By the plans herein given all of the requirements of the operatives are 
placed conveniently within the building, so that whether for stock, fuel, or 
any reasonable cause, there is no necessity of leaving the building, as it is a 
well-known fact that men working near artificial heat, as do those at forges, 
are very sensitive to both heat and cold out of doors, and that to make proper 
provision for their health, comfort, and convenience, while at their work, is 
not only proper and commendable in itself, but always conducive to their 
efficiency as workmen. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

SHOP TRANSPORTATION EQUIPMENT 

Its importance in the modern machine shop. Careful planning necessary. Continuous 
progress of work through the different departments. What may be classed as trans- 
portation facilities. Traveling cranes. Overhead trolleys. Shop tracks. Yard car 
crane. Shop trucks. Portable crane. Yard tracks and cars. Cast iron track. Re- 
quirements of a floor track. An economical system of shop tracks and cars. Over- 
coming wheel friction on curves. Forms of wheels and track. Dimensions of track. 
Switches. Track timbers. Yard tracks. Track for shop floors. The turntable. 
Shop cars. Construction and dimensions. Various forms of shop cars. With 
removable stakes. With removable boxes. With racks for special work. W T ith trays 
for special work. Dump car for coal, sand, etc. Double car, two cars and a special 
platform. Varying dimensions of cars. Number of cars necessary. 

The question of the transportation of stock and material from the point 
of its receipt from outside sources to the various departments where it is to 
begin its regular transit from the raw material to the finished product, of 
transferring this material from one department to another during its progress 
through the shops, and of its final transit from the department where it is 
finished to the storehouse, for safe keeping or for shipping to customers, is an 
important matter. For if closely followed through all its various stages, and 
the expenses accurately kept, as to the capital involved in the appliances 
necessary, the proper maintenance of these facilities in good working condi- 
tion, and the labor necessary for their successful operation, it would appear 
to be a far larger item of expense in the general account than would usually 
be supposed from a superficial consideration of the question. 

This is a matter upon which careful planning is needed in all its bearings, 
as any saving in this respect, while still rendering good service, is an actual 
saving, and, unlike the reduction of the cost in building a machine for the 
market, is not liable to effect a deterioration of the real quality or value of the 
product. This does not mean that the service can, or should be, made ineffi- 
cient in order to avoid expense, but rather that it should be well planned, well 
administered, prompt and efficient in every way, yet without a useless appliance 
or an unnecessary man employed in it. For instance, the progress of the work 
through the different departments should be so arranged that, as far as possible, 

204 



SHOP TRANSPORTATION EQUIPMENT 205 

it may be really progressive from the raw material to the finished product, 
with as little retrograde movement as may be. In this way a considerable 
percentage of the work of transporting materials and stock in progress may 
be saved, rendering a less extensive equipment of cars, trucks, etc., necessary, 
as well as a smaller force of employees for handling them. 

In arranging the different departments of the plant here shown due 
consideration was given to this matter and they were carefully planned with 
this end in view, as will be more fully pointed out in the chapters on 
Machine Shop Management which will succeed this part of the work. 

In the list of appliances that may be classed as transportation facilities, 
we may mention traveling cranes, overhead trolleys, shop cars on tracks, cars 
on yard tracks, hand trucks, and small tool conveyors. Of these, the traveling 
cranes may be those propelled by a shaft running the entire distance of their 
travel, by those carrying an electric motor for their propulsion, and those of 
small capacity worked by hand, with a chain reaching down near the floor. 
Again, as to lifting power, they are operated by the shaft above mentioned, by 
a motor, or by chain blocks with the usual differential chain wheels or other 
similar device. 

Overhead trolleys running on I-beams may have a small motor mounted 
upon them furnishing the power for their propulsion as well as for their lifting 
power. Frequently those of moderate capacity are pulled along by hand, 
and the loads lifted by chain blocks operated by hand. These trolley tracks 
are so constructed that they can be put up in straight lines, curves, switches, 
crossings, etc., which render them very convenient for light work, and they 
occupy but little room overhead, and none at all on the floor. In some cases, 
however, existing overhead obstacles such as shafting, belting, countershafts, 
etc., preclude the use of either the overhead trolley or the traveling crane; in 
others the weights are not sufficient to demand the expense of a traveling 
crane; in still other locations several traveling cranes would be required to 
cover the space to be operated in. Then there are other situations in which 
lack of height prevents the use of the overhead trolley system. 

Shop tracks for the accommodation of cars of the usual size, say 34 inches 
wide and 5 feet long, will be of the same gage as the yard tracks, or about 
20 inches, so that the shop cars or heavier and larger yard cars may be used 
on the whole system. These cars may be propelled by small electric motors 
in the form of an electric locomotive, which is simply a car fitted with two 
motors operated by a storage battery, but more often they are pushed about 
by hand, particularly when loaded with less than 2 tons weight. 

A balance crane may be erected on a car for yard or shop use, and may 
by this arrangement be capable of picking up and carrying a load up to a ton 
or two. It is very useful in locations where power for loading is not available. 



2o6 MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 

Four-wheeled shop trucks, with the front axle pivoted and handled by a 
tongue, should have their wheels so constructed and located as to properlv 
run upon the shop tracks as well as upon the floors. 

The Franklin portable crane is simply a small jib crane on wheels, which 
may be moved about the shop as easily as a hand truck. Its capacity is from 
one and a half to three tons. It readily lifts and holds the load at any point 
so that it can be wheeled to any desired location. It is now made also with 
a gasoline motor, or an electric motor run by a storage battery for both pro- 
pulsion by traction wheels and the power for lifting — making a very complete 
and portable power crane for many ordinary shop purposes. It will be found 
a very convenient and useful addition to the shop equipment. 

The traveling cranes provided for in the various departments do not 
seem to need any detailed description. There are many excellent ones in 
the market and they should be selected with a view to the special requirements 
of each case. 

In considering a system of tracks for yards, and the system for the con- 
struction of cars for use upon these tracks, the Hunt system is probably the 
best and most complete of anything in the market, particularly when heavy 
work is to be undertaken. However, for moderate loads a more economical 
method of construction may be adopted, and one that may be built in the 
shops without a great outlay for patterns or special tools. 

Metallic ties are no doubt the ideal method for laying track on the ground 
when steel rolled track is used. Yet a cast iron track, properly constructed 
and properly supported, will be found very practical for every-day service in 
a plant of such a character as the one under consideration. Again, where 
track is to be laid on upper floors it would not seem advisable to use the heavy 
plate track made of cast iron on account of its considerable weight. Much 
of this is not necessary for the purpose, particularly when moderate loads are 
to be transported, as is usual with work done on the floors above the first; 
and all excess of weight is not only detrimental, as unnecessarily loading down 
the building, but adds needlessly to the expense. In fact the principal re- 
quirements of a floor track would seem to be these: First, it should be on a 
level with the top of the floor, so as not to offer any obstruction to the workmen 
going from place to place, or to the passage of hand trucks over it. Second, 
it should be of such moderate weight that it may be laid down on anv floor 
of the building without overweighting it. Third, it should be of such simple 
construction that an ordinary mechanic may build one, put it in operation and 
repair it. Fourth, it should be so designed that cars having a fixed wheel 
base may readily run around its curves without undue friction. Fifth, it 
should be of such depth that it may be easily laid down by cutting through 
the usual two-inch plank floor of the ordinary machine shop, or laying the 



SHOP TRANSPORTATION EQUIPMENT 207 

track first in the case of a new shop being erected, and fitting the floor 
around it. 

A tra< k designed and constructed in conformity with these conditions is 
illustrated in the drawings accompanying this chapter. Fig. 132 is a plan of 
a section of straight track joined and secured to a 90-degree curve. Fig. 133 
is a section of straight track in connection with a left-hand switch. Fig. 134 is 
a cross-section of the straight track, on an enlarged scale. Fig. 135 is a cross- 
section of curved track, also on an enlarged scale. All of these views show 
the track and its supporting timbers as arranged and laid in the shop yards. 
Fig. 136 is a cross-section on a still larger scale, showing the relation of the 
straight track and a portion of the rim of a car wheel. Fig. 137 is a similar 
section showing the position of the wheel on the outer rail of a curve. 

Upon a straight track it is a simple matter to construct wheels or track 
that will run properly and work freely without undue friction or grinding upon 
the edges of the rails. 

When the curves are considered quite a different problem presents itself. 
The outer rail upon a curve being considerably longer than the inner rail, 
means must be provided for compensating for this difference so that there 
may be no slipping of either wheel of the car when passing around the curve, 
in the case of the usual four-wheeled cars whose wheel axles are journaled in 
fixed boxes. To provide for this condition the groove in the track is consid- 
erably widened, whereby the wheel flange may have ample space to run from 
side to side. The wheel is constructed with an inclined face, representing a 
short section of a cone. It is considerably wider than the portion of the track 
upon which it runs, as will be seen by referring to Figs. 136 and 137. The 
action of this arrangement is as follows: When running on a straight track 
the position of the wheels on the track will naturally be midway, in consequence 
of the reversed position of the inclined tread of the wheels. When the car 
arrives at a curve the natural tendency is toward the outer rail. This ten- 
dency will throw the outer wheel up on its largest diameter and at the same 
time bring the bearing of the wheel on the inside of the curve to its smallest 
diameter. This variation of diameters will be sufficient to compensate for the 
increased length of the rail on the outer side of the curve and the car will run 
smoothly around it. The difference between the width of the groove in the 
straight track and that on the curves is arranged for by narrowing the groove 
in the curved track to the proper width in the final 8 or 10 inches from the 
end where it joins the straight track. The dimensions of the track are given 
in Figs. 136 and 137. 

All curves are of 1 2 feet radius to the inside rail of the curve, and it would 
be better to make them 14 feet if possible, as the longer the radius the easier 
the cars will go around the curves, no matter what system of construction of 



208 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 




SHOP TRANSPORTATION EQUIPMENT 



209 



cars is used. For switches the plan will be as shown in Fig. 133. Special 
castings are constructed as shown at A, B, and C, and to these the curved and 
the straight track will be joined as shown. Of course, these special castings 
must be made for right and left switches, necessitating two patterns of each 
piece. A shifting tongue to the switch need not necessarily be provided for 
cars carrying light loads, as it is a comparatively easy matter to guide them 
as desired. These yard tracks are laid upon timbers which are bedded in 







-A— --> 




Fig. 134. — Cross Section of Straight Track when Laid. 

flush with the top of the ground. For the straight track they are 3x4 inches 
and secured, as shown, by cross pieces and through and through bolts f inch 
in diameter. For the curves 3 x 10 inch timbers are needed, and they are 
similarly fastened. In attaching the straight sections to each other the timbers 
are lapped and bolted as shown. On the curves, switches, and similar places, 
iron straps fastened by bolts or lag screws are used to connect them, as shown 
in the drawing. 




Fig. 135. — : Cross Section of Curved Track when Laid. 

In laying the track, the frogs and crossings of the switches should be first 
put in place and connected with the straight pieces of track, which may be 
easily cut to length on the power hack-saw. Such curves as are necessary to 
connect the switches to the straight track are then put down, care being taken 
to have the proper pieces of curved track to connect with the straight track so 
as to properly fit the groove in it. It will be necessary to have a gage by which 
to locate the second track, after the first line of rails has been put down and 
correctly lined up. 

Another form of track is shown in Fig. 138, for the straight yard track. 
It has the advantage of having no groove where water, snow, or ice may find 
a lodgment and impair the usefulness of the system. This form of track 
may also be constructed for the curves, by placing it the proper distance apart 
to permit the wheels to run up on their largest diameter on the outside rail 
and their smallest diameter on the inside rail. Grooved track will be needed 
at the switches. 



2IC 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 



In fastening down these tracks heavy, flat-head wood screws are used 
for track having a groove, and lag screws for track constructed as shown in 
Fig. 138. 

In Fig. 1 39 is shown another form of track for shop floors, letting the rails 
^ in flush with the top of the floor. The sides of the 

track are square with its lower surface, so as to 
have it fit up to the edges of the floor planks with- 
out cutting them to an angle. Curved track is 
similarly made, the groove being wider but the 
edges of the track vertical, as shown. 

It will be noticed that all this track is of cast 
iron, as being a cheap and convenient material. 
Steel rails laid on ties may be used for the straight track if desired, and cast 
iron rails for the curves and the switches, but the expense will be considerably 
more, and the additional outlay is not necessary if light loads, say under two 
tons, are to be carried. 

Fig. 140 shows a plan and cross-section of a turntable. It is composed 




W- - ■.---- 
\c 3 fr — A 

Fig. 136. Fig. 137. 

Cross Section of Cross Section of 
Straight Track. Track on Curves. 




Fig. 138. — Cross Section of Straight Yard Track. 

of two castings; the lower one, or bedplate, being, for convenience, made of 
octagonal form, and having formed in it a proper recess for receiving the 
turntable proper, which is journaled or pivoted upon a center pin cast upon 
the bedplate. Two annular bearing surfaces are provided, in addition to the 
boss around the pivot pin. At the ends of the track grooves are formed 




Fig. 139. — Cross Section of Straight Shop Track 

suitable pockets for receiving the ends of the track and holding them in line 
with the turntable grooves. At one side is shown a simple and convenient 
latch, A, pivoted flush with the top of the bedplate in the projections, B. 
Four recesses are formed in the top of the turntable proper, into any one of 
which this latch may be dropped as desired. For heavy loads the annular 



SHOP TRANSPORTATION EQUIPMENT 



211 



bearing surfaces are sometimes provided with grooves and hardened steel balls 
introduced to eliminate a large percentage of the friction, but in this case the 
additional expense is hardly necessary, if the bearing surfaces are kept well 
slushed with a thick grease. It will be better to face up the bearing surfaces 
in a large lathe that they may be true and evenly bearing surfaces, but this 
may be omitted if castings can be had which are straight and true. Where 
these turntables are used in yards, holes should be left in the bedplate casting 
to permit the water to run through, and thus avoid as much as possible the 
danger of their freezing up. The bedplate should be supported by 3 x 5 inch 
timbers placed directly beneath the tracks in both directions, these being 
usually used in connection with tracks at right angles to each other. 




^^V^^^^^^^N^^^ 



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Fig. 140. — Plan and Cross Section of Turntable 

It will be noticed that all of this track work is so simple and plain that 
the work of laying it may be done by any good carpenter; and that the effort 
is made to have all the arrangements of both track and cars of the most simple 
and inexpensive character consistent with utility and durability. 

A car suitable to run on these tracks is shown in the drawings, in which 
Fig. 141 shows a side elevation; Fig. 142 an end elevation; Fig. 143, a bottom 
view; and Fig. 144, a section of one of the wheels, with a portion of the axle. 
Sufficient dimensions are given to enable any good mechanic to construct 
them. This car, constructed of oak planks, put together in the manner 



212 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 



shown, will be amply strong for loads up to two tons. The top planks are 
fastened down with f x 4 inch lag screws, the heads with washers under them, 
and let in flush with the top of the planks so as to otter no obstructions. The 
frame is fastened, as will be seen, with f x 6 inch machine bolts, the nuts of 
which are placed in mortises. The axle boxes are solid and fastened to the 
car frame by § x 4 inch lag screws, and are also held rigid by ribs let into the 
side timbers, as shown. 

So far we have considered only the plain platform car. which will be 



■ - -=^- 



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2H x 7 x i 10 



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M 



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Fig. 141. — Side Elevation of Tram Car. 

used for perhaps a majority of the transportation of material and stock about 
the plant. But there will be a demand for cars for special work, where a car 
of special construction and adapted to the conditions will be vastly more 
convenient, and better suited to the purposes for which it is used. As it has 
been the aim in designing and arranging this system of shop and yard tracks. 
and the necessary equipment for them on such a plan, that all the work of 
construction and installation may be done on the premises, and at moderate 

expense, the same idea has been car- 
ried out in reference to what may be 
dignified in railroad parlance as the 
" rolling stock" or equipment for it. 
With this idea in view, the different 
styles of cars represented in Figs. 145, 
146. 147, 148. 149, 150, and 151 have 
been designed to meet the requirements 
of actual practice in the regular routine 
business of the machine shop and the various departments necessarily con- 
nected with it. 

The plain platform car, suitable for use in the shops, was seen in Figs. 141, 
142. 143. and 144. This form is the basis of all the cars shown in the succeed- 
ing illustrations. Fig. 145 shows a car with stakes, supported in ordinary 
cast iron stake pockets bolted to the frame of the car. proper recesses having 
been cut in the top planking or platform of the car to accommodate them. 
These stakes may usually be 20 to 24 inches in height from the top of the car 




Fig. 142. — End Elevation of Tram Car. 



SHOP TRANSPORTATION EQUIPMENT 



213 



platform, and 2} x 3 inches at the largest part. Such a car will be useful for 
transporting lumber in long or short lengths, for forgings, for small boxes, or 
bundles of manufactured stock to be shipped, as well as many other uses which 
will readily suggest themselves. 

In Fig. 146 is shown an ordinary platform car having a box of 1 J to 2 



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Fig. 143. — Plan of Under Side of Tram Car. 

inch plank, held together by f rods, as shown, and held in place on the car 
platform by the straps A A, so as to be readily removable and adaptable to 
any of the regular sized cars. This form of car is very useful in transporting 
lots of small castings, forgings, drop forgings, partially finished work, and 
any kind of stock and material which may be 
handled roughly and is not too large or clumsy 
for piling in such a box. 

Fig. 147 shows a car specially arranged for 
transporting spindles, short shafts, and similar 
work which have been finish turned, ground, or 
have passed through such operations as render 
their careful handling necessary. In this case a 
sub-base of ij-inch plank is placed two or three 
inches above the car platform, and a similar one 
at a proper height above it to accommodate the 
work to be handled. These supporting planks 
are perforated with holes of a proper size to suit 
the work. They are supported and held in place 
by plank ends, corner posts, or in any convenient manner. These support- 
ing shelves or frames may be attached to the car as a part of it, or they may 
be made removable like the box shown in Fig. 146. This form furnishes a 
safe and convenient method of handling this class of work. 




Fig. 144. — Section of Car Wheel. 



214 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 



Fig. 148 shows a car arranged with racks for holding a series of trays for 
the reception and transportation of small, finished parts, or parts going from 
the machines to the polishing room, plating room, finished parts storeroom, etc. 
Such cars may be constructed to take trays the full size of the car platform, 
one half, or one third of it, or for any combination of these sizes, the trays 
sliding into their places like the printer's type cases. They will be found very 
convenient for handling and for accounting for small parts in their transit 
through the shop. 

Eigs. 149 and 150 show a dumping car, arranged from one of the regular 



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Fig. 146. — Car with Removable Box. 



cars, with the platform omitted. As will be seen, the box or body of the car 
is not pivoted upon trunnions, but supported upon a cast iron rack, with cast 
teeth, at each end of the car, this rack being engaged by a toothed segment 
fixed to the car body as shown. The object of using this toothed device in 
preference to simple trunnions or pivots is to carry the car body toward the 
side where the load is to be deposited when the car is dumped. The device 






Car Arranged for Travs. 



c„c 



r. The side supports, A A, are pivoted to the frame of 
the car and are used to hold the car body in its normal position. The sides 
of the car body are pivoted at the top, as shown in Fig. 1 50, and held or released 
by a simple latch at their lower edge. A small safety 7 chain may be added on 
each side to prevent the car body from becoming unshipped by cai\ 
dumping. 

These cars may be used in transporting coal, ashes, coke, molding sand, 



SHOP TRANSPORTATION EQUIPMENT 



215 



and all similar materials which may be quickly unloaded by dumping. Those 
used for carrying coal to the boiler room may have a horizontal shelf on a 
level with the bottom of the car body, and on the side toward the boilers. 

However, a more con- 





sY 




venient arrangement will 
be a solid box of three 
sides, or two ends and a 
side, built upon an ordi- 
nary platform car, the 
side toward the boilers 
being pivoted at the bot- 
tom instead of at the top, 
as shown. This will be 



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Fig. 149. — Side Elevation of Dump Car. 

convenient to shovel coal from. But the dumping car, as 
shown, should be used for the removal of ashes. For 
either coal or ashes the car bodies should be lined with 
sheet iron. 

Fig. 151 shows a large car formed by placing upon two 
ordinary flat cars a platform constructed of 2-inch planks, 
running lengthwise, and held together by cross bars 2 \ 
inches thick, and a similar bar running lengthwise on each 
side of the platform, and within two inches of its edge. 
Such a platform may be from 34 to 42 inches wide, and 
from 7 to 10 feet in length, according to what use it is 
intended for. Cross bars at least 12 inches wide should 
be built with the platform, 
at the points over the centers 
of the cars, and through these 
is placed a "king bolt" as 
shown, which furnishes a 
pivot upon which the sepa- 
rate cars turn, the same as 
the trucks of a railroad car. 
It will be readily seen that 
such a car will carry double 
the weight of the ordinary 
platform car as the weight is 
distributed upon eight wheels instead of four. 
Cars for use in the yards may be heavier and longer than those used in 
the shops if the conditions demand such increase. For instance, the cars 
may be made 38 inches wide and 6 feet long instead of 34 inches by 5 feet. 




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Fig. 150. — End Elevation of Dump 
Car. 



216 MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 

The frames should then be of 3 x 8 inch instead of 2§ x 7 inch timbers. The 
wheel base should remain the same, in order to facilitate the passage of the 
car around the curves. 

As to the number of cars necessary for the equipment of the entire plant, 
much will depend, of course, upon the particular character of the work to be 
done, but in a general way it may be stated somewhat as follows : Of the ordi- 
nary flat cars, as shown in Figs. 141, 142, and 143, there will he needed 16 
cars, distributed among the different departments. Of these, 6 at least should 
have stake pockets and a sufficient number of stakes provided for them to 
give ten stakes to a car. There should also be 10 of the removable boxes 
shown in Fig. 146 for use on them if needed. There should be 6 dump cars 
for use in the yard, foundry, and boiler house. The special cars shown in 
Figs. 147 and 148, and such modifications of them as may be necessary, will 
be used mostly in the machine shop galleries, and their number will be deter- 
mined to a very large extent by the kind of work that is to be done. There 
should be at least two of the platforms shown in Fig. 151, to be used on any 
of the flat cars. The number of cars above mentioned is considered really 
essential to the proper handling of the usual classes of stock and material, but 
a larger equipment will doubtless be advisable whenever the first cost is not 
closely limited, as a lack of proper transportation facilities, while there may 
be a saving in first cost, will prove a matter of continual expense in not being 
able to handle stock and material to advantage, and with the economy of 
labor cost that a complete equipment would permit to be done with ease. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT OF THE MANUFACTURING PLANT 

The smaller departments. The importance of minor details. The experience of practical 
men. The carpenter shop. Arrangement for storing lumber for daily use. The 
foreman's office. Its construction and arrangement. A fixed desk. Foreman's store- 
room. Convenient bins for nails, bolts, etc. Cutting-off saw. Swinging Saw. Rip 
saw. Work benches. Shop doors. Shop track. The storehouse. Steam railroad 
track. Wide doorways. The floor arrangement. Overhead trolleys and hoists. Plan 
for storing machines. Painting machinery. So-called enameling paints. Avoiding the 
expense of a painting department. The paint room. The general wash rooms. 
Separate entrance and exit doors. The lockers. Construction and arrangement of 
the wash rooms. The general water-closets. Construction and arrangement. Sani- 
tary care of wash rooms and water-closets. Building machine foundations. A planer 
foundation. The necessities of the case. Excavations. The plans for the work. 
The central pit. Strong mortar necessary. Setting up the planer. Foundation 
requisites. 

In this, the concluding chapter of this portion of the work, it is proposed 
to take up the smaller departments, special rooms, etc., in the same manner 
in which the subject has been treated in the previous articles and to give such 
a detailed description in connection with the engravings as to make the 
matter as complete as in any of the more important departments of the plant, 
and finally to give an example of machine foundation more complete than 
the brief description in Part First of this book. 

To many casual readers, or superficial observers, who may have read 
these chapters it has doubtless appeared that very many of the matters con- 
sidered have been treated with too great a regard for the smaller details and 
the minor points which, in their way of thinking, might be easily decided and 
of at any time without much study as to just how this or that matter could be 
disposed best handled, or this convenient accessory be best located, arranged, 
equipped. This ignoring of details, assuming them to be trifling matters, or 
has often been the cause of much disappointment and useless expense, because 
what was, at the time, considered a trivial matter has, under perhaps somewhat 
unusual conditions, and sometimes under the most ordinary conditions, proven 
to be much more important than at first supposed, and given no end of trouble 

217 



2l8 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 



before being finally arranged in a thoroughly and practically satisfactory 
manner. 

To practical men who have had experience in the designing and arranging 
of the various machine shop departments and accessories, or of those of a 
manufacturing plant, so as to afford the best accommodations and facilities 
for the class of business to be done there, at a reasonable economical expense, 
and to those who have had years of practice in superintending and managing 
the daily routine therein, it has doubtless occurred that there were many 
points in these chapters that should have been much further elaborated, and 
whose details should have been gone into more thoroughly and explicitly. 
For these men know the annoyance, the disturbance of daily routine work, 
the inconvenience and the expense of alterations, changes, and rearrangements 
that it has been their lot to encounter and their duty to remedy, in order tc 




Fig. 152. — Plan of Carpenter Shop. 

bring efficiency out of the ill-advised and impractical plans and get everything 
running smoothly and satisfactorily. 

The carpenter shop is located near the rear of the plant, between the 
machine shop proper and the forge shop, and adjoining the storehouse, or 
shipping room. Its internal arrangement is shown in Fig. 152. In this de- 
partment should be stored the lumber and other packing material necessary 
for shipping, as well as for doing the miscellaneous carpenter work required 
about the plant. This material may be brought in on the yard cars by way 
of the track entering the side door; or, if received by the steam railroad cars, 
it may be brought in through the storehouse — a distance of only fifty feet. 

Lumber in long or short lengths will probably come in on the steam 
railroad cars, as it should be purchased in carload lots. It may be unloaded 



EQUIPMENT OF THE MANUFACTURING PLANT 219 

upon the yard cars at the rear gate and run directly into the carpenter shop. 
Convenient methods are shown, by dotted lines, in the engravings for locating 
the different lengths of lumber so as to render any length accessible without 
disturbing any other length. Ordinarily the lumber will be piled on the floor, 
but light, thin lumber, matched sheathing, etc., may be placed in racks over- 
head, where it will be more out of the way and safer from accidental injury. 
Box stuff cut to dimensions, as well as made-up boxes, may be similarly stored 
so as not to unnecessarily encumber the floor space. 

In the outer corner of the shop is an inclosure serving as an office for the 
foreman. It is built of J-inch matched sheathing to the height of 42 inches, 
and above this height it is composed of a galvanized iron wire netting 4 feet 
w T ide and of i-inch mesh, attached to a frame of 2 x 3 scantling, placed not 
over five feet apart, and forming also the framework supporting the sheathed 
portion below 7 . The wire netting is tightly strained upon this and fastened 
with 16-ounce tacks, after w r hich a face casing \ inch thick and 3 inches wide 
is put on, along the top and bottom and vertically at each upright. A cap 
1 inch thick and 3 inches wide is placed on top. At the top of the sheathing 
a 1 x 2 inch strip forms a cap, underneath which a|xi inch strip forms the 
finish. Doors may be conveniently made with side and top stiles 1 inch by 
4§ inches, and the middle and bottom stiles 1 inch by 6 inches, all "halved 
together," glued and screwed, and covered with the wire netting, and finished 
with a facing strip \ inch by 2 inches, mitered around each panel to cover 
the edges of the wire netting. These are very strong and quite light and answer 
the purpose admirably. The object of constructing inclosures in the shop in 
this manner is to obtain a reasonably secure partition, and at the same time 
one that will offer as little obstruction to the light as possible, and also permit 
as free observation of the various parts of the room, as well as of the inclosure 
itself. This method has been found in practice to be strong, durable, and 
economical. 

Along the side of this inclosure, next to the wall, is a fixed desk of proper 
height for a man standing, say 41 inches. It should be 24 inches wide and 
incline to the front about 2 inches in its width. Upon it, and in the corner 
between the two windows, should be placed a suitable pigeon-hole case, not 
over 24 inches high and 8J inches deep. The top, bottom, and sides are of 
|-inch white pine and the partitions are of |-inch stuff. This, with the desk, 
should be protected by two or three coats of shellac varnish. This case will 
be used for holding such blanks, slips, memoranda, and similar papers as are 
in use. Proper space should also be provided for the necessary books relating 
to the carpenter work, boxing, skidding, shipping, and similar work. 

At the left-hand side, and between the window and the partition, there 
should be fixed to the brick wall a board of the same height as the pigeon-hole 



220 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 



case for convenience in hanging filing clips and for similar purposes. Beneath 
the desk should be two drawers, about 5 inches deep, 24 inches from front to 
back, and 30 inches wide, and provided with locks. Such an arrangement of 
desk, pigeon-hole case, drawers, etc., is shown in Fig. 153, which will give a 
general idea of its appearance and usefulness as well as of its economical 
construction. 

The particular description here given of such fittings as these will apply 
to the design, arrangement, and construction of similar cases, racks, shelves, 
and other divided spaces necessary in many other parts of the plant, and we 
shall be well repaid for the time spent in carefully designing them to meet the 
special conditions and objects for which they are to be used, and shall often 



►!i 



FOR 

FILING CLIPS 

ETC. 



WINDOW 



in 



□□ 



r 



aa 



-a 




WINDOW 



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Fig. 153. — Fixed Desk, Pigeon Holes, etc. 

be enabled thereby to save quite a percentage of the time of the employees 
using them. They may be constructed by any good carpenter and will be in 
many respects the best as well as the most useful. 

Adjoining the foreman's office and opening out of it is a similar inclosure, 
to be used as a storeroom for the carpenter shop and to hold such articles as 
may be much more conveniently kept here than in the principal storeroom, 
in the office portion of the plant, to be drawn in small quantities as needed. 

Against the wall is a case containing a row T of bins for holding nails, 
spikes, etc. They are constructed of sufficient dimensions to hold a liberal 
supply of each size of nails and spikes, and the front board is made quite 
narrow, not over 6 inches high, to facilitate the removal of the contents. 
Above this row of bins is a case for lag screws, etc., containing thirty-five 
boxes, this being amply sufficient for all the different sizes usually needed. 
The width of this case is determined by the distance apart of the two windows 



EQUIPMENT OF THE MANUFACTURING PLANT 221 



between which it is located. At the left of this case, standing on top of the 
bins, and in front of the window, should be a small counter scale for weighing 
such articles as may be used or issued and are to be accounted for by weight. 
A perspective view of this case and the row of bins is given in Fig. 154. 




Fig. 154. — Case for Lag Screws, Nails, Spikes, etc. 

On the opposite side of the storeroom is a somewhat similar case for 
holding nuts, washers, etc., in the bins, and having above it a case with forty- 
two compartments for machine bolts, carriage bolts, etc. A perspective view 
of this case is given in Fig. 155. Both of these cases are made of |-inch pine 
and painted. The top of the bins is 24 inches from the floor. That shown 
in Fig. 154 is 6 feet high, but the one shown in Fig. 155 is limited to 5 feet 
so as not to unduly obstruct the light. The base of the bins is 18 inches wide. 
The depth of the upper cases is 8J inches. In the construction of cases of 




Fig. 155. — Case for Machine Bolts, Nuts, Washers, etc. 

this kind it is well to remember that they may be made of an ordinary quality 
of pine commonly called "box boards," planed on both sides. The horizontal 
boards or shelves are first put in, the ends resting on cleats screwed to the 
uprights at the ends of the case. The upright partitions are cut to the correct 
length on the cutting-off saw, set in place and "toe nailed" in front, and 



222 MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 

nailed through the back. All the shelves and upright partitions should be 
| inch narrower than the uprights at the ends, while the top should project 
J inch at the front and ends. The bins may be built in place, nailed to the 
floor, but it is sometimes desirable to have such fittings built separate and 
set in place when completed, so that they may be moved, in case it should be 
necessary to do so, without partially or wholly destroying them. 

The location of the piles of lumber is indicated by dotted lines, and the 
capacity of the space is marked in each case. At the side of the yard track 
entering the carpenter shop is a cutting-off saw. This may be one with a 
sliding table, upon which the lumber to be cut is placed and moved toward 
the saw. But for rapid work a swinging saw, pivoted overhead, and quickly 
moved in an arc across the piece of lumber, is preferable for the ordinary 
rough work called for in the carpenter shop. Of course, such a saw must be 
carefully protected so that the careless use of it may not be dangerous to the 
workmen. 

Near the cutting-off saw is the rip saw, but located at right angles to it 
so that long lumber may be handled, and in order to increase this capacity it 
is placed between the two doors, thus permitting the handling of lumber of 
almost any length. A work bench occupies the entire length of the inner side 
of the shop, furnishing an ample space for five men at bench work. It is 
fitted with removable vises in order that long work may be handled if necessary. 
A door 10 feet wide leads into the yard and one of the same width into the 
storehouse. These should be sliding doors, the latter a properly protected 
fire door. A side door 4 feet wide gives entrance to the tram track from the 
yard. In the large outer sliding door it is well to put a small swinging door, 
say 30 inches wide, for convenient use in winter, to avoid the necessity of 
opening the large door for the passing in and out of the workmen. 

The storehouse adjoins the carpenter shop, communicating with it by 
way of the 10-foot fire door just mentioned, and with the rear end of the 
machine shop by a 14-foot sliding door, also arranged as a fire door. The 
relative position, as well as the complete plan, is shown in the engraving in 
Fig. 156. A steam railroad track runs along the rear of the entire plant, and 
as closely as may be to the shipping doors of the storeroom. These are three 
in number, one of 12 feet, and the other two 8 feet in width. Six windows in 
this side and four in the end of the storehouse afford sufficient light for the 
usual purposes. 

The floor of the storeroom is raised above the floor of the machine shop 
to such a height that the top of the platforms of the cars running on the machine 
shop floor track will be the exact height of this floor. A portion of the floor 
of sufficient width to admit a shop platform car is cut out, as shown in Fig. 156. 
By this means machines may be placed on these cars by the traveling crane 



EQUIPMENT OF THE MANUFACTURING PLANT 223 

in the machine shop, run into the storeroom and unloaded on the floor at the 
exact level with the top of the car platform. From here they may be taken 
on rollers (if they are skidded) or on machine trucks, and put in their proper 
places on the storeroom floor. At each of the three shipping doors there should 
be an I-beam extending out over the railroad track, upon which is mounted 
a trolley hoist, preferably operated by compressed air or electricity. These 
I-beams should extend back at least to the center of the storehouse and, 
better still, all the way across it. They may be connected by lateral I-beams, 
by curves, by turntables, etc., so that nearly all parts of the storehouse may 
be effectively covered. The lateral tram car tracks will prove a valuable 
adjunct to this system in moving machines from place to place on the store- 
house floor. 




CARPENTER SHOP 




STORAGE 



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SHOP TRACK 



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Fig. 156. — Plan of Store House. 

In storing machines of various sizes in the storehouse while awaiting 
shipment it is frequently difficult to get at just the size of machine wanted 
without the trouble and expense of moving several others, for it is a common 
saying among shippers that "it is always the machine in the furthest corner 
that we want." In the dotted lines in the plan, Fig. 156, is laid out an ar- 
rangement of machines of a dozen different sizes, in such a manner that any 
size may be brought out for shipment without materially disturbing those of 
any other size. Of course this shows an arbitrary lot of sizes, but the plan 
here used, of reserving central aisles with cross aisles at proper intervals, is a 
plan which storeroom men and shippers will do well to familiarize themselves 



224 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 



with and to adapt to their special needs by changing it to suit the particular 
class of machines with which they have to deal. 

In the case of small machines that may be stored on shelves, provision 
should be made for them by arranging shelving on the alcove plan, similar to 
that employed in storing patterns in the pattern storage room. In such cases 
such trucks as heretofore described in these chapters may be advantageously 
used, the truck wheels being located so as to fit the regular shop track. Man- 
ufactured machines may then be handled with very little labor of loading and 
unloading, the use of the overhead trolley being brought into requisition 
whenever possible. Branches from them may be run over the centers of the 
alleys between the sections of shelving as may be necessary. 

In all manufacturing establishments making machines in whose con- 
struction cast iron enters considerably, there is more or less painting required. 
The present demand is for very clean, smooth work, finished with some one 
of the various machine enamels. These enamels, so called, are to a great 
extent composed of a pigment mixed with some kind of varnish, usually of 
gum copal, thus forming the "air-drying enamel,'' in contradistinction to the 
" baking enamel," so much used on bicycle parts and similar work. In the 
manufactory of the kind under consideration the machines will usually be of 
a size to render their removal to a special paint shop, and from thence, after 
painting, to a storehouse, a matter of considerable expense. They are, there- 
fore, painted in the erecting departments, and the expense of providing a 
special painting department is avoided. Still there must be a safe and proper 
place for keeping paints, oils, and other painters' supplies and materials, and 
also to serve as a sort of shop for the painters. 

This kind of a room is shown in Fig. 157. It is located between the 

storehouse and the machine shop. The floor 
should be of brick, hard asphalt, or concrete. 
On the side toward the storehouse are bins for 
holding dry colors. These should be raised 3 
inches from the floor and be constructed of 
J-inch pine, similar in form to the bins in the 
carpenter shop storeroom, but with covers 

Fig. I57 .-Plan of Paint Room. hinged ^ ^ ^ ^ exduding dirt Qn each 

side of the door is a bench 2 feet wide and 30 inches high, for convenience 
in mixing paints. Over each bench is a series of four shelves, 10 inches 
wide and placed respectively 12, 10, 9, and 8 inches apart from the bench up. 
These will be convenient for storing small cans of ground paints, brushes, sand- 
paper, and similar articles. Beneath the benches should be a shelf 16 inches 
from the floor, and each bench should be provided with a drawer 2 feet square 
and 8 inches deep, and furnished with a lock. The remainder of the space 




EQUIPMENT OF THE MANUFACTURING PLANT 225 

on the side toward the machine shop should be provided with a platform 
16 inches from the floor, for holding barrels of oil, turpentine, etc., on their 
sides, and for barrels of such dry materials as it is not desirable to put in the 
bins. 

If considerable lamp black is used there should be a large galvanized 
receptacle, round or square, with a tightly fitting cover, for its storage, as there 
is always the danger of spontaneous combustion to be feared from it. Beneath 
the oil and the turpentine barrels there should be a drip pan of strong galvan- 
ized iron. The use of the lighter petroleum products such as gasoline should 
be avoided, if possible. If we are compelled to use them a separate storeroom 
should be built in the yard. It should have an iron roof, as a matter of ordi- 
nary protection. Any inflammable materials of this kind in use in the shops 
should be returned to it each night and taken out in the morning. The paint 
room should, of course, be always locked when none of the regular painters are 
working in it. 

The wash rooms as well as the water-closets are located in the rear por- 
tion of the power house and upon each floor, the upper floor on a level with 
the floor of the machine shop galleries, this location being midway in the length 
of the machine shop proper, so within the most convenient distance from any 
point in the shop. There are two doors opening from the machine shop, one 
to be used as an entrance and the other as an exit door, to avoid the con- 
fusion that would otherwise take place if workmen going both in and out were 
to come in contact during the rush of the men in washing up and leaving the 
shops at quitting time. The plan is shown in Fig. 158. 

A series of lockers are located on each side of the room its entire length^ 
and a double row located in the center of the room. These, with a few at 
either end, will give one hundred and twenty-eight lockers in the room. There 
are, of course, an equal number in both the upper and the lower rooms. In 
some of the departments, for instance in the small parts storeroom, and the 
assembling rooms, — perhaps in the grinding room, the carpenter shop, etc., — 
the workmen may be provided with lockers in their work rooms, but the sys- 
tem can be better cared for by not breaking it up too much. Between the 
rows of lockers are the wash sinks, constructed after the plan shown in the 
chapter on iron foundry equipment, affording fresh, clean water to each man. 
The water used by the men for washing may be warmed in winter by passing 
it through a steam-heating coil, and the difference in the temperature of the 
water no doubt would be much appreciated by the men. When water is 
used for washing from a sink filled for that purpose a jet of steam opening 
below the level of the water will be a convenient means of warming it for the 
use of the men. 

The windows along the outer wall of the wash room are placed high 



226 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 



i 



ENGINE ROOM 



I I I I I I I I I I I I I I LOCKERS 



I I I I I 



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TO MACHINE SHOP 



WASH SINK 



rCOCKE?S 



TO WATER CLOSETS 




WASH SINK 




enough in the wall to be above the lockers, which should be constructed of 
expanded metal, or its equivalent, but never of boards, or in any way to 
prevent the free circulation of air, and of sanitary cleanliness. 

The water-closet room opens from the wash rooms. Windows open 
from each side, and there is an additional one at the far end. Those on the 

sides are placed high enough to be 
out of the way of the water-closets 
on one side and the urinals on the 
other. There are eighteen water- 
closets and twenty one urinals in 
the room. The urinals are di- 
vided by partitions 2 feet wide and 
5 feet 8 inches high, and the water- 
closets are 32 inches wide and pro- 

Fig. 1^8. — Plan of Wash Room. , r * r ,i n t? i_ 

5 ject 4 feet from the wall. Each 

closet is provided with a light door having double swing, spring butts, and a 
sliding bolt on the inside. These doors should not reach the floor by about 
12 inches, and should extend to the top of the partition. The partitions 
should be 5 feet 8 inches high. A plan is shown in Fig. 159. 

All partitions of the water-closets or urinals, if of wood, should be well 
painted with a heavy mineral paint, the last coat being of enamel, the prefer- 
able color being a steel gray, which is very hard and durable and will stand 
much washing. It will be better, of course, if these partitions are of metal, 
similarly painted. They may be of cast iron § of an inch thick, strengthened 
by suitable ribs. For the water- 
closets wooden partitions will be H0USE 
preferable. The floor should be 
of some non-absorbent material 
with no seams or joints to retain 
offensive odors. A smoothly 
surfaced cement composition, 
such as is used for sidewalks, 
and commonly called " artificial 
stone" will be the best that can be put down at a reasonable expense. For 
the second story this may be laid, 2 inches thick, over a wooden floor com- 
posed of 3 x 4 inch scantling laid on edge. A similar floor will be suitable 
for the wash rooms, and much more economical in the long .run than a wood 
floor, which will have to be renewed in a few years as it will decay from the 
constant wetting from the wash sinks. 

On the ground floor the cement surface may be prepared for by broken 
stone, etc., similar to the usual shop concrete floor, only not nearly so deep. 




Fig. 159. — Plan of Water Closets. 



EQUIPMENT OF THE MANUFACTURING PLANT 227 

All the piping for the water supply and for sewer connections should be in 
plain sight so as to be easily accessible when necessary to make repairs. The 
urinals should be automatically flushed with an ample supply of water at 
short intervals. The drainage pipes from the wash room should be utilized 
for flushing the sewer connections of the water-closets and the urinals. Water 
from the roofs of the buildings may be used for a like purpose, thus insuring 
a clear and ample drainage, free from the danger of clogging up the flow of 
water and the generation of sewer gas. 

The water-closets and urinals provided for the machine shop will be used 
also by the carpenter shop and the storehouse employees, but these employees 
may have lockers located in the carpenter shop, if desirable, and they will 
doubtless be better satisfied with such an arrangement. The wash rooms 
and water-closet rooms should be in charge of an attendant whose duty it 
will be to see that everything is in proper working order and that sanitary 
regulations are strictly observed. 

It would seem at this point advisable to say something more explicit 
about machine foundations than has been said in the chapter on this subject 
in Part First of this work. The planer has been selected as an example, 
and this for the reason that it is a machine tool upon whose accuracy much 
depends on the foundation upon which it is placed. This description is the 
result of much experience in this direction by the author, and will well repay 
the careful consideration of the men who may have charge of similar work. 

The failure of machine foundations, even when built by experienced 
masons, is proverbial, and much money is frequently expended in this direc- 
tion only to find the efforts end in failure again and again. It is an important 
subject for the mechanical engineer and no owner should attempt such work 
without the plans of an engineer who fully comprehends the particular case 
under consideration and prepares his drawings to fully meet the requirements. 

With the constantly increasing demand for a much finer grade of work 
in all mechanical establishments ; for more accurate fitting ; for standard sizes ; 
for practically perfect circular work where the circle is involved ; for work that 
is to be square, to be at absolutely right angles; and for straight work to be 
as nearly absolutely straight as it is possible to make it; with the demand for 
machine tools of such construction and accuracy as was not thought necessary 
or hardly possible in the average machine shop of a dozen years ago — many 
of the standard machine tools, such as lathes, shapers, millers, and planers, 
have attained a degree of precision that seemingly leaves little to be delired 
in this direction. That these tools are expensive to build as well as to buy 
is one of the necessities imposed by this demand for accuracy. And it is met 
i airly, and the price is paid by all up-to-date establishments making even a 
pretense to producing reasonably accurate work. 



228 MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 

Let us consider for a moment the application of this condition of demand 
and its successful supply in the case of a planer. It is certainly commendable, 
and shows a progressive spirit on the part of the management, to purchase 
the best and most accurately built planer in the market, as well as the one 
that will produce the greatest quantity of work — good work — work that 
one may have reason to be proud of and may not have need to apologize for. 

But, having purchased the best planer the market affords, all conditions 
being equal, it becomes an important question as to the best method of setting 
it up so as to give the best results. Right here be it said that however much 
is paid for a planer, or however good may be the reputation of the establish- 
ment from which it is purchased, the machine will not do good work unless it 
is properly set up; unless it has a properly built foundation upon which it 
may be supported. And as a good price has been paid for a good machine, 
we must not expect a good foundation at a cheap price. Good things cost 
something, whatever they are. 

Of the failures of foundations of the "good enough" kind many of us 
know all that we need. It is proposed to describe and illustrate a foundation 
that will properly f ulfil all the requirements and conditions of the case. 
First, it may be we'ii to call attention to some of the vital points involved in 
the matter. 

It is best to have all planers on the ground floor. Small ones with extra 
heavy beds may be placed on an upper floor, but certainly those for work 
over four feet long should be placed on the ground floor. 

All planers 30 inches square and 10 feet long, and over, should be set on 
special foundations. 

All excavations for foundations should be carried down to "hard pan," 
or perfectly reliable, hard gravel bed, whether it be found three feet down, or 
ten feet. 

All piers should be begun with quite large stone, laid as a wide footing, 
to the depth of from twelve to twenty-four inches, according to the depth of 
the foundation. 

All foundations should be laid in strong cement mortar, by which is 
meant that containing two parts Portland cement, one part lime, and about 
three parts of clean, sharp sand. The amount of sand will vary considerably 
with its fineness, sharpness, and freedom from dirt. The finer the sand, the 
greater the quantity necessary. The spaces between the piers and between 
the walls and the surrounding earth should be tightly rammed with hard 
gravel, if it can be had. It will be well to use a hose and plenty of water in 
"puddling" this gravel in as closely as possible, as much support may thus 
be given to the masonry. 

In the engraving, a foundation is shown for a planer 48 x 48 inches x 18 



EQUIPMENT OF THE MANUFACTURING PLANT 



229 



feet. Fig. 160 is a vertical, longitudinal section of the foundation, and Fig. 161 
is a plan. Substantial ground is supposed to have been found at a depth of 
five feet, and upon this the stone footings for the piers are laid, two and a 
half times the width of the stone cap, and a proportionate increase in the 

length of the piers. This stone 
footing is laid two feet deep, and 
upon it the brick piers are built 
with a "batter" of 2 inches to the 
foot. 

In laying the bricks each 
course should be completed sep- 
arately, and not by building a shell 
of one width of brick around the 
outside for several courses up at a 
time and filling in with brickbats 
and wide joints. In raising the 
corners not over three courses are 
built up, as cement mortar sets 
rapidly and it is very important 
that the work should be bound 
together as closely and strongly 
as possible. 

Flush joints should be insisted 
upon in all machine foundation 
work. All piers should be 
capped with stone of fairly even 
thickness and perfectly level on 
the upper side. 

In the center a pit is built 
as shown in the engraving. It 
should be six feet deep and ex- 
tend from the pier beneath the 
rear of the side posts or housings, 
to a point far enough in front of 
the center gear to admit of free 
access to it in case of needed repairs. This pit should be wide enough to 
admit of placing in it wooden removable steps as shown. 

On each side of the planer, pockets should be built for the pulleys, in 
case the planer is supplied with pulleys extending below the floor line. These 
pockets should be of such size as to permit the pulleys to be slipped on and 
off at the end of the shaft, and at least twelve inches wider than the diameter 




230 



MACHINE SHOP EQUIPMENT 



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of the pulleys. In this case they are shown for a planer having pulleys on 
both sides. 

As nearly in a vertical line with the cutting tool as may be are two hollow 
columns, usually made of heavy cast iron pipe, resting upon the brick floor 
of the pit, reinforced at these points by a large, well set stone. These columns 

support the planer bed at the two 
points, the weight being taken by 
heavy adjusting screws and a sole 
plate as shown. 

A foundation of this kind should 
stand from five to ten days, according 
to its depth, after it is built, before 
the planer is placed upon it, in order 
that all mortar joints may be thor- 
oughly set and perfectly hard and 
firm. The planer may be leveled up 
by steel wedges, lifting it about one 
quarter of an inch from the stone 
caps. The space around the resting 
places of the bed may then be closed 
with putty and melted lead poured 
in to give it a solid bed on which to 
rest, after which the steel wedges may 
be removed, leaving the weight upon 
the lead only. Melted brimstone is 
sometimes used, but its liability to 
crack from sudden jars renders it in- 
ferior to lead for this purpose. 

In leveling up a planer, it is 
frequently the practice to level across 
the flat surfaces each side of the V's, 
or, if the table has been planed off 
when the planer was prepared for in- 
spection in the shops, to place the 
level on that. The best plan, how- 
ever, is to level up the bed before the 
table is put on. To do this properly, 
turn up three round pieces of steel whose diameter is such that as they lay 
in the V's of the bed they will project a half inch above its sides, and of a 
length equal to twice their diameter. These should be accurately ground to 
exactly the same diameter. (They may be made all in one piece and after- 




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EQUIPMENT OF THE MANUFACTURING PLANT 231 

wards cut up if preferred.) Place them in the shaper and plane a flat 
place one half to three quarters of an inch wide on one side of each of them, 
and be sure that they caliper exactly the same across from the round surface 
to the flat space. Place one of these in each V, at one end of the bed, with 
the flat surface up. Lay on the parallel straight-edge and then the level, and 
bring the bed up to it. The third piece is then placed in one of the V's, 
the length of the straight-edge away from one of those already located. 

Now, level lengthwise. Transfer one of the other pieces to the V opposite 
the last one located and level crosswise again. Then from the last two level 
lengthwise, and so on the entire length of the bed. It may be necessary to 
go over the bed several times, never less than three times, but by this means 
a long bed may be leveled correctly and "out of wind." The time spent in 
accurately leveling up and setting a planer bed will be well spent when it 
comes to doing accurate work, and so saving many dollars in the usual expense 
of scraping work to fit on account of poor planing. 

To have a planer so set up as to do really first-class work will save from 
40 to 60 per cent of the usual scraping expenses, due to even fair work, besides 
the satisfaction of having a machine whose work can be depended upon. 

The general principles here laid down should be followed in building the 
foundations for all classes of machine tools requiring a substantial foundation. 
And it should be remembered that in building such foundations they must 
be, first, of sufficient weight of material in proportion to the weight of the 
machine to be placed upon them to be able to withstand successfully all 
shocks and jars without injury, as well as to be capable of sustaining the 
weight of the machine without undue settling so as to throw the machine out 
of level or out of line in any part. And second, that the excavation is down 
to solid ground, certainly that all "made ground" or artificial filling is taken 
out; and that if the earth is still yielding, artificial support must be obtained 
as described in Part First for the foundations of buildings. 



PART THIRD 



MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 



CHAPTER XXV 

MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

Modern methods. Divided responsibilities. The "shop tree." The three grand factors. 
Capitalization. Manufacturing. Selling. Graphic diagram of the organization of a 
manufacturing establishment. The regular channel for orders and reports. Relations 
of the departments. The secret of success in management. The value of individuality. 
Indiscriminate criticism harmful. Frenzied mechanics. The quiet and methodical 
manager. Some prime facts concerning systems. Any reasonable system better than 
none at all. Patchwork systems. The successful system. A system to be effective 
must be carried out as planned. A good system requires a strong manager. Vacilla- 
tion of management disastrous. Plan of organization. Efficiency the first requisite. 
The management. The United States Army system. A criticism. The military idea 
in the shop. Analogous positions and duties. The superintendent's functions. The 
assistant superintendents and their duties. The foreman and his work. The "gang 
boss" and his value in the shop. 

There is no truer illustration of the saying that "old things have passed 
away and all things have become new/' than is shown by the modern methods 
of the management of the manufacturing enterprises of the present day. 
The days of the "one-man management" have passed away, and in their 
stead has come the management by a system of divided and properly distributed 
responsibility, whereby the real head of the establishment takes up only the 
consideration of the larger, broader, and more comprehensive questions of 
importance in management, leaving to his able assistants the questions of the 
next grade of importance, and in their special spheres, while they, in turn, 
divide the next grade of lesser responsibilities with their assistants, the foremen, 
and so on down through the several grades of less importance to the operatives 
or workmen. 

Thus we have what has come to be known as "the shop tree," representing 
graphically this plan for the division of responsibility in the management of 
the entire plant. 

There are three grand factors that go to make up the sum of this problem 
of manufacturing which should not be lost sight of at the outset. The first 
is the capitalization of the scheme; the second the manufacture of the product; 
and the third, the marketing or selling of the product. 

The first factor comprises the stockholders, represented by the Board of 

235 



236 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

Directors, whose head is the president of the company , and whose executive 
officer is the general manager. This group includes the administrative and 
financial departments of the entire establishment. 

The second factor comprises the manufacturing plant, whose head is the 
works manager or superintendent, and includes the purchase of stock and 
supplies, the care of the grounds and buildings, and the entire process of 
manufacturing and shipping the product 

The third factor includes the advertising or publicity department, and 
the sales department, each with its own manager, and frequently presided 
over by the vke-president- 

V,"r_Le -:-.:':. :: :::rSr i-z :.:::::. enri ire :: ':r:z:e in:: : :::■::.:■: L:\ 1" res-:e::.5. 
it is the second that particularly concerns us in this work. Nevertheless it 
may be interesting and instructive to present, in Fig. 162, a graphic diagram 
representing the division of duties and responsibE:::^ as generally arranged 
for establishments such as we are considering, and as representing the 
management of our model manufacturing plant. 

This will show the regular channel for all official orders and communi- 
cations, as well as, inversely, the channel through which all rej : :s gc thi : . gh 
intermediate officers to their proper and ultimate destination. It also shows 
the proper relation of one department with another, of certain groups of 
departments with other groups, and in a general way th e : h 7 [ I : : g in- 

ization and management. A careful study of : h e se : : : : : : ; : : s s 
recommended to the earnest student of machine shop and factory organization, 
management, and economics. 

N 3 w a few words of practical common sense on the subject of the successful 
management of men from the standpoint of personal experience and obser- 
vation during years of actual shop work and supervision. 

If we search diligently and conscientiously for the secret of success in 
management, whatever may be the importance of the responsibilities, from 
the president down to the "gang boss," we shall find that it lies principally 
in the ability of the manager to find the right man "who can do things," and 
then let him alone so as to give him an opportunity to accomplish the duty 
devolving upon him. It often requires less talent and genius, not to say 
common sense and good judgment, to find the man to "carry the message to 
Garcia," than to keep your hands off and let him do it in his own way. 

Again, the business may have reached the limit of its expansion under a 
certain man because the man isn't big enough or broad-minded enough to let 

subordinates "do thin^." He is forever interfering with the routine and 
methods of his manager, and every one else, for that matter, and so individ- 
uality is lost, efficiency lowered, and the value of the man and the force greatly 
impaired. Thus the effort is made "to please the old man" rather than to 



MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 



2 37 




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238 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

improve the management, the condition, and the conduct of the business. 
Good ideas of experienced men are smothered by objections, the results 
" damned by faint praise," or " tinkered" until their identity and usefulness 
is entirely lost and their author discouraged in making others in the future. 

Another equally reprehensible and quite as disastrous propensity is for 
"the old man" to make periodical raids through the establishment, grumbling 
and criticising right and left " without just cause or provocation," after the 
manner of the proverbial "bull in the china shop," and with equally unpleasant 
results to the employees and to the business. 

While we are ready to admit with a somewhat prominent writer that 
there is a good deal of "frenzied finance" abroad in the land, we have not 
far to go to find equally prominent instances of frenzied mechanics, in which 
there is much more noise than good sense, good judgment, or knowledge of 
human nature, as represented by the large majority of employees in machine 
shops and manufacturing establishments generally. 

The best and most successful managers are the leaders and not the drivers 
of men. The quiet and methodical manager naturally creates an atmosphere 
of loyalty and discipline among his subordinates, who obey his orders with 
alacrity and good faith. Hence, good results flow naturally from their united 
efforts, while the nervous, belligerent manager with the "billy-goat" propensity 
of "butting in" on any and all occasions, not only keeps "rattled" himself, 
and so in no condition of mind to properly decide important questions, but 
is an important factor in producing a state of incompetency, disorder, and 
consequent failure. 

Let us now proceed to consider the management of a model machine 
shop or manufacturing plant in a general way, leaving the scheme of the 
different departments in detail for later consideration. 

Probably no one will take exception to the proposition that we shall have 
reached the perfect system of management when we shall have devised methods 
by which we may produce the greatest amount of good work with the smallest 
number of employees and the least amount of friction and irritation among 
them. 

How this is to be accomplished is worthy of the most patient investigation, 
for the question of the management of machine shops and manufacturing 
plants is one of many phases. There are several general propositions in this 
connection that should be briefly stated . Among them are the following: 

First. Any reasonable system is better than no system at all. There 
are shops to-day running, or trying to run, in which there is really no system 
worthy of the name, and things are allowed to drift along from day to day 
"by guess and good luck," just as they did forty years ago, and if we inquire 
why this or that thing is done so and so, we get the stereotyped reply, "That's 



MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 239 

the way we've always done it." One of these days these shops will "wake 
up and find themselves dead," as the Irishman said, or they will adopt some 
kind of a system that will be of modern brand. 

Second. The adoption of a part of a system, or a system for one part of 
the works and not for the remainder, " just as a trial to see how it will work," 
is practically no better than no system at alL" 

Third. The endeavor to adopt a system composed of parts of various 
systems, grafted upon, added to, dovetailed together, and patched until they 
lose all their identity, like Joseph's coat of many colors, is but to invite a dismal 
failure. Many a good plan has been killed and its author humiliated by 
adopting it piecemeal. 

Fourth. To be successful the system must be complete and compre- 
hensive, clearly defining every regulation as to the progress of the work, the 
method of accounting for time and materials, records of pay and efficiency of 
employees, and the duties and limitations of authority of every person concerned, 
from the manager down to the errand boy, so that the fewest cases may arise 
that have not been provided for in the system, and that there may be as much 
certainty and distinctness as in the regulations of the United States Army. 
Then we shall realize the highest efficiency and the least amount of friction. 

Fifth. The system must be carried out in every particular as it is planned, 
unless there are very serious reasons for a change. Of course, even the Con- 
stitution of the United States can be amended, but only for weighty reasons, 
and "while it stands, it goes." Shop regulations should be on the same 
basis, and all employees will soon come to respect them, and to realize that 
they operate just as much for their welfare and protection as for the benefit 
of the owners of the plant ; that so long as they are obeyed in a spirit of faithful 
service the employee is always right ; and that when they are disobeyed through 
carelessness, a desire to shirk duty, or even from the "smart Aleck" notion 
that some employees get into their heads, there is a good prospect for trouble 
to the offending parties. 

Sixth. The man who is to manage the administration of the system 
must be strong, able, honest, fearless, and positive. He must be strong in 
carrying out the system that has been adopted; otherwise his weakness will 
be soon discovered by his subordinates and the "backbone" of the system 
will be broken. He must be able, both by education and experience, to un- 
derstand and appreciate all the details of the business. Of course, he must 
be honest in all his dealings with his subordinates as well as with the owners. 
He must be fearless, giving his orders where and when and to whom they are 
necessary and take the responsibility for their effect when faithfully obeyed. 
Hesitation, vacillation, or indecision will very materially injure his authority. 
To give an order and, when it has been obeyed faithfully and failed of the 



240 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

object sought, to blame those who executed it, is to cause his men to lose 
faith, not only in his ability but in his sincerity. And there is only one thing 
more damaging to the administration in the minds of the employees than this, 
and that is to show a lack of faith in their ability and honesty. This will 
always prove discouraging and cause the men to lose interest in the successful 
progress of the shop. 

Such being the general conditions under which we must organize, we may 
proceed with the further consideration of the system by which our plant is to 
be managed. We must first know what we are to plan for. It is assumed 
that the plant and all its accessories have been designed and equipped for 
manufacturing only. Therefore, with the exception of the shipping facilities, 
the entire establishment is devoted to turning out and shipping what it is 
directed to make. To accomplish the results we seek, we must go about the 
matter with a definite and comprehensive plan. It will not do simply to 
decide some of the main features and leave the others to be determined as we 
go along. If we do so we shall probably be surprised to find that some of 
the minor matters will loom up as important features when we least expect 
trouble. 

We will consider the scheme of organization. In deciding what plan is 
best we should look to efficiency as the first requisite. This will include the 
question of making the most of the services of each man in a responsible 
position; it will include the consideration of a plan that shall have the least 
friction between the different officials in the routine work of the shop. It 
will seek a proper division of responsibility, so that if anything goes wrong 
we may at once determine what man was responsible for the lack of attention 
to duty. It should be a plan that will produce a maximum of result with a 
minimum of effort. Every man must know exactly what his duties are, what 
are the limits of his authority, as well as from whom he takes and to whom 
he may give orders. 

It will be understood, of course, that the entire management of the plant 
is under the charge of the superintendent and that all orders from the general 
office go to him direct, and that there is no interference with any other official 
of the shops by the general manager or any one in the general office. This 
sort of interference "over the head" of the superintendent will break up the 
discipline of any shop, and it should never be indulged in by the authorities 
in the office or permitted by the superintendent. It should be the same with 
all officials in the shop.' No official or employee should accept any order 
unless coming to him in the regular way through the next higher authority. 

We think it has never been seriously questioned, that the organization of 
the United States Army, with its division of responsibilities, the provisions for 
accounting for all property handled, and for ascertaining the final results, as 



MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 241 

well as for keeping a definite record of the individual efficiency of both officers 
and men, is a well-nigh perfect system. Its practical utility is not thoroughly 
appreciated by the manufacturers of to-day, who are prone to look upon 
anything labeled " military" as savoring of arbitrary and summary methods 
that in the shop would be disagreeable to both employer and employee. That 
this is too apt to be the popular impression is evident from the remarks of a 
recent writer on this subject, who says: 

"Under the military type of organization the foreman is held responsible 
for the successful running of the entire shop. He must lay out the work for 
the whole shop, see that each piece of work goes in the proper order to the 
right machine, and that the man at the machine knows just what is to be done 
and how he is to do it. He must see that the work is not slighted, and that 
it is done fast, and all the while he must look ahead a month or so either to 
provide more men to do the work or more work for the men to do. He must 
constantly discipline the men and readjust their wages, beside fixing piece 
work prices and supervising the timekeeping." 

This is hardly a fair conception of what military rules mean, as it is surely 
anything but military. No military officer has any such variety of duties to 
perform. As well might it be contended that the colonel of a regiment takes 
command of the police guard or drills the awkward squad, or that a captain 
teaches the recruits the manual of arms. On the contrary, the colonel com- 
mands a regiment, but he gives orders to his majors who command battalions 
and give orders to the captains of companies. They in turn give orders to 
the non-commissioned officers who instruct the enlisted men. Each officer 
has his clearly defined duties, authority, and limitations. It is true that the 
organization and management of many of the larger and more successful 
manufacturing companies in this country to-day are using systems very closely 
modeled after the military methods, and in many cases, as investigation will 
show, following the army methods much more closely than is realized by 
many men. 

Let us consider for a moment the analogy which may exist between a 
regiment of infantry and a large machine shop plant, with its force of officials 
and employees. The general manager may be likened to the general in 
command, and the machine shop or manufacturing plant to a part of an army, 
say a regiment of infantry on active service. The colonel in command will be 
represented by the superintendent or works manager. The colonel must 
have a staff, each of the officers composing it being at the head of one of the 
staff departments. So here we must have a staff, and it will consist of the 
office force, and include the chief clerk, purchasing clerk, time clerk, cost 
clerk, and the stenographer, all reporting directly to the superintendent. 

A regiment is divided into two or three battalions commanded by majors. 



242 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

Our force will be divided into two parts, each under an assistant superin- 
tendent. Each battalion is composed of a number of companies, commanded 
by captains. Our two groups are divided into certain analogous departments 
each in charge of a foreman. Our arrangement will be for the first assistant 
superintendent to have charge of the drawing room, pattern shop, tool room, 
experimental room, stock room, power house, iron foundry, forge shop, car- 
penter shop, paint shop, shipping room, and the yard gang. 

The second assistant superintendent will have under his charge all of the 
strictly machine shop departments, consisting of the planing department, 
heavy turning department, drilling and boring department, milling and gear- 
cutting department, small parts department, grinding department, polishing 
department, finished parts storeroom, small parts assembling department, 
erecting department, and inspecting department. 

This. then, is the skeleton of the plan of our organization and from this 
we may make up what is called, in army parlance, the roster. This will 
include all responsible officials, commencing with the superintendent and the 
office force, then the assistant superintendents, foremen, etc. A little further 
on we will add others more intimately connected with the workmen. 

This plan requires the superintendent to look after his office force as to 
accounting, purchasing, issuing, time keeping, pay roll, manufacturing costs, 
and the correspondence, and to hold the two assistant superintendents respon- 
sible for all of the requirements of their respective jurisdictions. In a plant 
of the capacity which we have been considering and the force employed this 
wih be all that one man can be expected to do. 

In the same manner the two assistants will find their time quite steadily 
employed in the successful management of the eleven or twelve departments 
in their charge. The assistant superintendents should be men of good execu- 
tive ability, good machinists, and understand in detail the operations of ma- 
chining and working every variety of work or material handled under their 
supervision. They should understand drawings thoroughly and be able to 
make anv of the calculations usuallv made in the drawing room. Thev should 
understand the character of the men under their control and the characteristics 
of machinists or other tradesmen working under them. 

While these men are officials capable of handling men by direct contact 
with them, their positions now place them one step beyond that, and all matters 
of instruction as to the work, the everyday routine in passing work from one 
department to another, the discipline of the force under their charge, should 
be done with the foremen, and never with the men. 

An infallible rule for injuring the efficiency of a shop official of whatever 
rank is for some higher authority to ignore him and pass orders on to the 
grade below him. or. in shop parlance, to "make a bridge of his nose." The 



MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 243 

foremen, in turn, give the work to the gang boss having charge of similar work, 
and he instructs the workmen when necessary and sees that the work is pushed 
along. This may seem a little like "red tape," but it is at once the quickest, 
surest, and safest way to manage the shop, and one that will produce the greatest 
amount of good work with the least friction and ill-feeling on the part of the 
employees. Still, any official witnessing a violation of the sanitary or of what 
may be called the police regulations of the establishment is expected to call 
the offender to account and later to report him to his foreman. 

The foreman should be a man of excellent mechanical ability, understand 
drawings thoroughly, and be able to make any of the ordinary calculations 
necessary. He should be able to make estimates as to time, cost, and material, 
of anything handled in his department. He should know the characteristics 
of men in general and the abilities and dispositions of those under his control. 
If his room is large enough to have gang bosses he should give his orders to 
them, and not to individual workmen. He should know every item of work 
passing through his room, keep things moving in it, and see that work trans- 
ferred to him from another department is in proper condition and is promptly 
used, and that the product of his department going to another one is in proper 
condition for the transfer and is passed on without unnecessary delay. 

It is not at all necessary that the foreman of a small department, or over 
a few men, should devote all or even a large percentage of his time to strictly 
foreman's duties, as he may be able to do considerable work himself while 
directing others. The point is, to have one competent man in charge of the 
force, the gang, the room, or the department, whom we can hold responsible 
for the results in that department. In the same way some departments may 
be large enough to require gang bosses, or assistant foremen. 

The gang bosses or foremen of small departments may do some machine 
work themselves, but it frequently happens that it pays better when they do 
not, but on the contrary give their entire time and energy to keeping things 
moving ; to seeing that the operatives at the machines are supplied with proper 
tools and materials, that their product is promptly moved out of their way 
when completed, and that everything moves harmoniously, with proper speeds 
and feeds on all the machines. The gang boss may thus make himself a very 
useful man. 

There is another view of the question. The gang boss is very likely to 
be more in the position of "one of the gang" than the foreman, more closely 
affiliated with the workmen of his gang than a foreman is ever likely to become, 
and the men will naturally feel more interest in their work under his direct 
leadership because of this. 

In our analogy of the plan of organizing and administering the affairs of 
a manufacturing plant to the military organization, we had got to the foreman 



244 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

as corresponding to the captain. Our gang bosses will fittingly represent the 
non-commissioned officers. These are privates of more than ordinary ability 
and faithfulness and have been promoted for these reasons. They are the 
real leaders as well as instructors of the privates and form what might be 
termed the connecting link between them, as a class, and the commissioned 
officers. So should the gang boss or assistant foreman be, and his influence 
for good in the smooth running and harmonious, as well as efficient and 
profitable, conduct of the shop is a very important matter which should receive 
the most careful consideration in the organization and operation of the plant. 
The gang boss should be a man properly qualified for the position; able 
to read drawings readily; to know enough of human nature to "size up" the 
abilities of the men under him, and to know, not only each man's practical 
knowledge of the business, but his natural disposition, so as to be able to 
direct him intelligently and for the best good of the establishment. In the 
foregoing remarks as to foremen, etc., those of the machine shop proper have 
been meant. But in a general way the principles are equally applicable to 
those of other departments. 



CHAPTER XXVI 

THE SUPERINTENDENT'S OFFICE 

Avoiding complexity of books, forms, etc. Arrangement of the superintendent's office. 
Progress of orders board. Its description and use. Handling correspondence. Su- 
perintendent's orders. Assistant superintendent's orders, or shop orders. Foreman's 
orders. The regular routine. Orders from the general manager. The usual practice 
in making out orders. Routine of orders. List of parts. List of gray iron castings. 
List of forgings. List of purchased parts and stock. Requisition for gray iron castings. 
Requisition for forgings. Requisition for materials. Requisition for purchased parts. 
Material and cost card. Time account. Accounting for labor. Time registering 
clocks. "Daytime." "Job time." Distribution of time. Accounting for jobs con- 
tinued and jobs completed. Checking the time account. Defective material and 
spoiled work. Special requisition necessary. Consumable stock, materials, tools, and 
supplies. The supply requisition. Fuel account. Few special books required. The 
"loose leaf" system. 

In continuing the subject of machine shop management the endeavor 
will be to avoid as much as possible the modern tendency toward multiplica- 
tion of account books, blanks, cards, and the like. In practice we are liable 
to burden ourselves with such a complexity of these things as finally to build 
up a system costing more for maintenance than it is worth, and what is of 
vastly more consequence, producing results that are far from showing a 
correct statement of the conditions. The author has in mind a recent instance 
of a shop containing less than seventy employees, while the office, stock, and 
shipping rooms contained over twenty employees operating an elaborate system, 
by which a small steel part produced by less than four hours' labor was billed 
at eleven dollars and a job of nearly three hundred dollars earned a profit 
of less than fifteen dollars, according to the showing of the so-called system 
of cost keeping. It is such failures that throw discredit upon Cost Systems. 
It is true that any system of benefit must cost something, and it is equally 
true that any one system will not be suitable for all cases, but must be modified 
to suit conditions. 

The offices are so arranged that the superintendent has a public and a 
private office. In the public office will be a large table convenient for spreading 
out drawings, and desks for the superintendent, the two assistant superin- 
tendents, and the chief inspector, as well as the usual filing cases, cases for 

245 



246 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

technical publications, catalogues, etc. In the large, open room of the office 
building is ample space and desk room for the purchasing clerk, cost clerk, 
and two bookkeepers or assistants should their services be necessary, and a 
special enclosure for the time clerk, with a convenient pay window opening 
into the entrance passageway. 

On the wall of the superintendent's public office is fixed a board, which, 
by the introducing and changing of small plugs, may represent in a graphic 
manner the progress of the work in the shops. This board is 37 inches wide 
and 27 inches high, and aside from the headings, etc., is ruled in i-inch 
squares by white lines on the black surface of the board. The design is shown 
in Fig. 163. In the center of each square is a f-inch hole. At the left are 
lettered the headings similar to those given. At the right are formed pockets 
in which may be placed small cards giving the months. These are used 
where orders run from one month into another and so on. Over the squares 
are figures for days of the month. Fitted to the holes is a series of wood or 
metal plugs, upon the f-inch circular face of which may be gummed discs of 
white paper bearing the numbers of the orders in the works. These plugs 
are moved daily from one hole to another as the work advances. Should it 
be desirable to leave a continuous record of the day of the month on which 
an order arrived at each stage of progress, or passed through a certain depart- 
ment, there should be four or more columns of holes for each day of the month, 
and a sufficient number of plugs with the order number indicated upon them 
to leave in the several holes as the work advances. 

The board shown is intended for regular orders for lots of machines or of 
assembled portions of them carried along together. A similar board may be 
used for tracing the progress of job or experimental orders. It will be the 
duty of the cost clerk to make regular daily rounds of the shops, preferably 
early in the forenoon, and note down in a small book carried for that purpose 
the facts necessary to make the changes on the board, and on his return to 
the office to change the plugs to represent the progress of the work. The 
author saw this plan used in a plant that included a number of buildings, some 
of them at quite a distance from the superintendent's office, and realized what 
a saving of time and annoyance it was and how many necessary questions it 
answered during the day. 

The correspondence of the superintendent's office will usually be of a 
limited nature and relate chiefly to quotations and purchase of materials. 
Letters of the purchasing clerk will be signed by the superintendent. All 
correspondence with the general office will be by the superintendent, although 
he may refer such parts as he desires to heads of departments, through the 
assistant superintendent having charge of them. 

Matters in reference to work done in and about the plant by outside 



TIIF SUPKRINTHNHKNT'S OFFICE 



247 



parties should be arranged by correspondence, the nature of the work clearly 
specified, and if practicable a price should be fixed by the parties doing the 
work, and provision made for any extra work that may be found necessary. 
No contract for this class of work exceeding fifty dollars should be valid until 
approved by the general office. 







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All matters that can be conveniently typewritten should be done in that 
manner. The practice of taking letterpress copies of letters and other matter 
sent out is clumsy and involves too much subsequent labor. Replies to letters 



248 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

should be duplicated by carbon copies attached to the answered letter and 
filed by the simple and efficient vertical system. 

The superintendent's orders to the shop will be made in triplicate when 
the work is done under the jurisdiction of both assistant superintendents, each 
having a copy. These should be written in a carbon copy book with an 
indelible pencil. This book should be 5J in. x 8| in., of white paper, and have 
the proper leaves perforated for removal. Each leaf has a printed heading 
containing the name of the firm or company, the words " Superintendent's 
Order," a date line, and numbered consecutively in triplicate. These orders 
as given will contain the order number of the general office, and those made 
by the superintendent for small jobs to be made from drawings should specify 
drawing numbers for identification, and the general office numbers if ordered 
from that source. 

Orders to the shop which affect the entire force, such for instance as a 
change in the hours of work, for shutting down the works for repairs or holi- 
days and similar matters, will be a separate series, typewritten, and carbon 
copies made for posting near the time clocks. They will be consecutively 
numbered and denominated " General Orders." The assistant superintend- 
ents will use carbon copy books similar to that used by the superintendent, 
but of pink paper, for their orders to the foremen. These orders should 
have the name of the company and the heading "Shop Orders, First Division," 
and "Shop Orders, Second Division," according to whether they are to be 
used by the first or second assistant superintendent. A date line should be 
added, with sufficient space for the usual rubber stamp. Each assistant 
superintendent will carry one of these books with him so as to be prepared to 
write an order at any time or place necessary. 

The foremen should have similar books, 4 in. x 6 in. in size, and of light 
blue paper, headed with the name of the company, the words " Foreman's 

Order Dep't," and date line. Whenever drawings do not sufficiently 

explain the work to the workman, or in the absence of drawings, the foreman 
will invariably make a written rather than give a verbal order. This order is 
retained by the workman as his authority for the work in case there may follow 
any question in relation to its correctness. And this idea will be followed all 
the way through, not endeavoring to remember things that are proper subjects 
for record, not burdening the mind with dates, sizes, amounts, etc., but recording 
them, writing them down, stamping a name and a date upon them, and placing 
them on file where they may be conveniently referred to in case any question 
arises. The carbon copy books may be conveniently used for sketches as well as 
written matter, and often with more comprehensive meaning. A good sketch 
with dimensions can scarcely ever be made to mean what was not intended. 
Sometimes writing is weak in this respect, particularly if carelessly done. 



THE SUPERINTENDENT'S OFFICE 249 

The superintendent, assistants, foremen, clerks, and all others requiring 
use of name, date, approval, receipt, and similar matters should be provided 
with rubber stamps. They should date every blank, sketch, or memorandum 
that passes through their hands unless it already bears a stamp of even date, 
and it will be safer to do so then, the name being stamped as well as the date. 

The regular routine method of passing orders through the works, and the 
books and blanks necessary for carrying out these methods, will be as follows, 
it being understood that many of the smaller parts of the machines being 
manufactured are made in large numbers and turned into the finished parts 
storeroom, from which they are drawn on proper requisitions when needed 
for assembling. 

Orders are supposed to be giv^n by the general manager for complete 
machines, usually in lots of varying numbers according to the size of the 
machines and the requirements of the market. The superintendent's orders 
will ordinarily be for groups of parts. For instance, in building lathes the 
general manager orders a lot of 25 lathes of 24-inch swing. The superin- 
tendent makes orders for 25 head stocks, tail stocks, carriages with rests, 
aprons, etc., complete. Then for 25 beds complete and of different lengths as 
specified by the general office order, and later on orders the lot, or certain parts 
of it, as may be necessary, to be erected and made ready for final inspection. 

Copies of the superintendent's order will be given to each of his assistants. 
The first assistant will make his order to the drawing room, pattern shop, stock 
room, foundry, and forge shop, and will see that the necessary drawings go to the 
second assistant ; that the patterns go to the foundry ; that material is furnished 
on the foremen's requisitions ; that the foundry makes the castings and that the 
forge shop gets out the forgings. Small castings and forgings may already be 
complete in the finished parts storeroom ready for use in assembling. Mal- 
leable iron, steel, brass, and bronze castings are considered as purchased stock 
or material if the establishment is not equipped for making them. In con- 
sequence, the purchasing clerk will order them, receiving the proper patterns 
from the pattern shop. The 'storekeeper will receive and receipt to the pur- 
chasing clerk and issue them to the proper departments with an invoice of 
their numbers, weights, cost, etc. The information for making the orders for 
stock, materials, and purchased parts is derived from the drawing room which 
furnishes lists of parts (see Fig. 164) of the different machines as well as of 
the different kinds of material used in their manufacture. These lists are on 
white paper 5J in. x 8j in. As many sheets are used as may be necessary 
and fastened together with the staple binder. There should be a sufficient 
number of copies made to supply one copy to the superintendent, each assistant 
and each foreman doing work on the parts and requiring them, as well as to 
others as the superintendent may require. Those going to the foremen may 



25° 



MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 



have unnecessary sheets omitted. For instance, the foreman of forge shop 
will not want a list of castings, etc. 

The list of gray iron castings shown in Fig. 165 is followed by that for 
malleable iron, steel, brass, and bronze castings, and these by the list of forgings 
(see Fig. 166), specifying materials, and lastly by the list of purchased parts 
and materials. As these lists are quite similar for the several machines, as 



for 


Name of Company. 
LIST OF PARTS 




Date . _ _ 








as 


Name 


Material 


S.S 

<U fit 
En r5 











for.. 


Name of Company. 
LIST OF GREY IRON CASTINGS 






Date 








d 


Name 




i 

ID 




% 







Fig. 164. — Size, 5^ x 8J in. 



Color, White. 



Fig. 165. — Size, 5! x 8§ in. Color, White. 



for instance, a series of lathes differing principally in the size, the matter may 
be nearly all printed. Materials from which forgings are to be made may be 
briefly marked thus: WI wrought iron, CS cast steel, TS tool steel, etc. 

The blank shown in Fig. 167 will include bolts, nuts, washers, cap, gib 
and set screws, sheet brass and steel, brass tube, square and round cold rolled 
or drawn machine steel, tool steel, and similar stock. 



for 


Name of Company. 
LIST OF FORGINGS 




Date 










d 

A* 


Name 


fn>«s 


Material 


be 

Be 













Name of Company. 
LIST OF PURCHASED PARTS AND STOCK 
for 



Date. 



Name 



J3 o 



Fig. 166. — Size, 5§ x 8^ in. Color, White. 



Fig. 167. — Size, 



5h x 81 in. 



Color, White. 



The first assistant superintendent will have made out the order to the 
foreman of the foundry for gray iron castings on the form in Fig. 168. The 
blank is perforated down the center. The right-hand portion is torn off and 
sent to the foundry. The other half is used to check the number of pieces 
and weights as the castings are received. Their weight will be added to the 
material card. 

The requisition for forgings is Fig. 169. This is filled out in duplicate, 
the first half being retained to check receipts of forgings upon, and the second 



THE SUPERINTENDENT'S OFFICE 



251 



NAME OF COMPANY 

GREY IRON CASTINGS 

REQUIRED FOR 



ORDER NO. 



DATE 



DC o 

B h 

D < 

* 5 



NAME OF COMPANV, 

GREY IRON CASflr 

FURNISHED FOR ._ 




Fig. 168. — Size, 8jX 11 in. Color, Grey. 



half is sent to the foreman of the forge shop as his authority for doing the 
work, for which stock will habitually be stored in the forge shop, having been 
delivered in bulk by the storekeeper and charged. It is to be checked on 
forgings delivered, each lot 
bearing its proportion of waste 
according to the job and stock 
used. A special account of this 
stock is kept by the storekeeper, 
charging additions and credit- 
ing with forgings turned out. 

The requisition for mate- 
rials is Fig. 170. This is filled 
out in duplicate and sent entire 
to the storekeeper, who retains the first half and sends the second half with 
the materials, w T here they are ordered by a note at the bottom of the first half. 
He fills in the costs for the guidance of the foreman to wmich it is sent. 

The requisition for purchased parts, parts that are purchased in a finished 
or nearly finished condition for use, is Fig. 171. 

Before the job starts in the shop a stout card is prepared to receive the 
costs of material and labor expended upon it. The front of this card is shown 

in Fig. 172. The card has a 
list of the usual materials given 
in one column, w T hile the other 
is left blank for the other arti- 
cles used. The weights, num- 
ber of pieces, and the cost, as 
shown by the storekeeper's in- 
voice received with the articles, 
is also written in by the fore- 
men. The back of card shows 
an account of the time spent 
on the job as provided for in Fig. 173. 

This time account the foreman obtains from the employees' job cards, 
registered in the time clock as hereafter described. This material and cost 
card will go with the work from one department to another, receiving its 
additions of material and labor account as it passes along, and furnishing, 
when the job is completed, a correct material and labor account of the work, 
and is turned in to the cost clerk. 

These blanks are made of different colors to assist in their ready identifica- 
tion, as it is well known that colors appeal to the sight much more quickly than 
does the printed heading. The colors of the different blanks are so arranged 



Name of Company. 
FORGINGS 

Required for 


Name of Company. 1 
FORGINGS 
. j'Eurnished for _____ 








Order No. Date 


J Order No.. _ . _Date_ 




tj 


Name 


[3 


|| 
55 'f- 


1? 
3 3 


Weight 
Part No. 


Name 




J3 £ 

S C 

a? 


1? 












1 












Fig. 169. — Size, 8^ x 11 in. Color, Light Blue. (The last 
column at right should be " number delivered.") 



MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 



NAME OF COMPANY. 



MATERIALS. 



REQUIRED FOR 



MiTr;, iL 



MAT 



FURNISHED FOR 



Fig. 



that similar colors do not appear in the same department for different purposes. 
The blanks are arranged to suit regular printer's sizes of paper, which is 
usually 17 in. x 22 in., and cardboard, which is 22 in. x 28 in. It is not 
necessary or advisable that all blanks shall be of a uniform size, although 

there should be no more differ- 
ent sizes than necessity or con- 
venience demands. They may 
be ruled horizontally for con- 
venience in writing if desired, 

order no. J but many prefer them plain, 

particularly in the smaller 
sizes. 

It is now proper to de- 
scribe the method by which 
labor is accounted for. There 
is in vogue in the different 

Size, 8§ x 11 in. Color, Light Green. shops of the country many and 

various styles and forms of time cards for recording the time of employees on 
different jobs of work or on different operations on pieces of the same job. 
A large majority of these require the employee to do some writing upon them. 
This is disagreeable to the men and frequently not correct. It is difficult to 

tell why a man does not want 

to make out a time card, but VT VT [ 

Name of Company. >iame 

every shop man knows the fact 
well enough, and all have heard 
men growl about it and say, 
"I'm a machinist, not a book- 
keeper or a clerk," and if they 
don't swear aloud they are apt 
to think it, and that injures 
their efficiency just as much. 
Various registering clocks have 
been devised to remedy these 
difficulties and to a greater or 
less degree they have helped 



Name of Company. 
PURCHASED PARTS 

Required, for 



Order No Date. 



Name 



Cost 



Nam£ 
PURCH 

Furnished for__J 
Order No, 



- c 

5* 



Fig. 171. — Size, 8h x n in. Color, Yellow. 



matters quite a good deal. One of the most practical of these is that called 
the International Card Recorder. In this clock a card is dropped into a re- 
ceptacle, a lever depressed and as a bell rings the actual time to the minute 
is printed on the time card in a space allotted to it. The changes from A. M. 
to p. M. as well as that from day to day are performed automatically by the 
clock mechanism. A lever operated by the workman changes the position 



THE SUPERINTENDENT'S OFFICE 



2 53 



of the card from "in" to "out" according as the man is beginning or quit- 
ting work. The cards are of sufficient length to contain a week's record, and 
special spaces are provided for overtime. They are made out by the time- 
keeper and placed in the "out" rack on Saturday after the men have quit 
work. They have the workman's name and number at the top and are kept 
in a special rack or case at the side of the clock from which the workmen ap- 
proach it, so that they may each take the proper card out of the case, step to 
the clock, stamp the hour, pass to the case on the opposite side of the clock 
and drop it into the case there. Over these cases are placards bearing the 
words "Day Time. IN." and "Day Time. OUT." One of these time 
cards is Fig. 174. 



N'AME-QF COMPANY 

MATERIAL AND COST CARD. 

ORDER NO. .. _ DAXE._ 














STOCK 


1" 

X 


COST 


STOCK 


UJ 


a 


1- 
r 


s 


COST 


C.I. CASTINGS 


















■ML. 1. 


















STEEL- '< 


















BRASS' 11 


















BRONZE ■< 


















BABBITT 


















MEH. STEEL 


















CAST . 1 


















TOOL •! 


















WT. IRON 












































































































PATTERN LUMBER 


















BOX 

























































NAME OF COMPANY. 

TIME ACCOUNT. 

ORDER NO. __ _. COMPLETED 


DEPARTMENT 


AMT. 


DEPARTMENT 


AMT. 






















































































. 













Fig. 173 — The Time Account (on the back of the 
Material and Cost Card) - 



Fig. 172. — Size, 5x7m. Six Ply Card Board. 
Color, Light Red. 

At the end of the week the cards are dropped into a box marked "Day 
Time," and placed under the "Out" case, and the timekeeper takes them up 
when leaving cards for the next week, and after computing the time he fills 
out the amount due each employee and enters it in his roll book. The time 
cards may be had in all colors. In this case we will use straw color for the 
day time cards, and for job time a different color for the employees of each 
department using the same clock. There should be a sufficient number of 
clocks to allow one clock to each hundred employees, or less, if the distance 
from their department renders it necessary to avoid too much loss of time in 
registering job time. 



- : - 



MACHDv 



OP MANAGEMENT 



:'ir ::re 
:ie ~~:r. 



■:_ _ dwb 






*. 








■ • <- __ 








■ _ : £ r : • : L r : : 


f ; : : 


mm 


- _ 
s _ 


- _, _ _ _ 


- 


:..- 


: - 


: 


".£ 


v"___ 


--. 






■H 1 I 






... 




" 1 * — "7 "NWr 


-'..'■ \ 








-:-..,.:_:,,.,_, 





______ 



5": . ; .:;- :ie — irk he :_ eir: z~ 
""::.::-_.; :: _______ mis : _: : 

:ie ; : : : ; ; : _:_i: .e:ei 7ie : 
_tt5 :h: le :_ niiJ e ■:. ~::i 
card to "ring in" when he 
viz" ±t firmer :ie 



____ : : e 
±ere 
:*iere 

: -. ■ - . 
___ . 

: .: : : : 



_ni.:_____ie5 
::rie: _l_i 



mi ;_ 
Inzer 



~ 



_n .:. 

;_::_ 



__ 



ne :: riese 
~er :j__2__i 11: 

:i i:::e :: :_ 
i:e _. i:-:i:i 
ir : : : in :i e 



:•:-'_ use :ie 

: _. : .: : 5 ~__ 

le-eoe: I: __ 
from day to 



day he uses the same job caid, chxjppin 
Completed" on Saturday night, and iec 



le ' : 



::. M:~i__y 



-might be still another box marked,. "Job Continued/' but the 

":■:::■_. ~: .:.: r-eriii^ riiic _:i:.:i:i ____. : .:: ::__■_ _____ :- :i : : iri 

.man's stamp. "CompletedL," when the job is finished. If the job 
_ :'_ :/. ::;ie :ie :it :ie ~:rkrm ~""._.. :..:." t :ie iireziii ::_r: i:s 
efore dropping it in the box. The object of this arrangement for 

: " • " lit :.".: " 

thown by the day time card by which 



-••-__ 



_____ :■- 
:.: : iz 
.17 25 2: 



: :i.>e-5 _;-:_1_l: :: :i_ se 



THE SUPERINTENDENT'S OFFICE 



255 



used for the day time cards, the placards over them being lettered, "Job 
Time Only. IN." and " Job Time Only. OUT." 

The timekeeper transfers the amounts on the job cards to the job time 
book, which is ruled up as in Fig. 175. This book may be used as a monthly 

instead of a weekly account if desired. This 
account of job time will be a check against the 
foreman's account given on the material and 
cost card which goes with the work through the 
different departments, and is finally turned in 
to the cost clerk, who may also compare it with 
the storekeeper's account of stock, material, and 
purchased parts issued and charged to the 
different departments. 

More or less spoiled work will turn up from 
time to time; some parts or articles of stock or 
material will be lost and cannot be accounted 
for; some that will be found defective; and 
some parts rejected by the inspector. To re- 
place these will require separate consideration 
and treatment from the routine manufacture. 
In the case of the manufacture of small parts in 
quantity, to be turned into the finished parts 
storeroom, the count, as they go from one depart- 
ment to another, will be lessened as parts are 
spoiled or rejected and the cost per piece will be 
correspondingly increased. But in case a certain 
number of parts are required to be made on an 
order we must devise a means for the issue of 
stock and material to replace that defective, lost, 
spoiled or rejected, and under proper safeguards 
to prevent misuse. This will be by a special 
requisition, signed by the foreman of the depart- 
ment and approved by the assistant superintend- 
dent, specifying what is wanted and the reasons 
why it is required, that is, to replace defective 
material, spoiled, or rejected parts, etc. This 
requisition should be made in duplicate, one copy retained by the storekeeper 
and the other rilled out with the costs and sent with the articles to the de- 
partment requiring them. Fig. 176 is the form to be used. 

In filling out this blank the words " Defective Material, Spoiled Material, 
Lost Material, and Rejected Parts," that are not needed may be erased by 



Company 
For the week ending 


]9 



H 








f 
, I 


CO 

pq 

P 

to 






































































| 




















/ 











































fc O 

1-9 


pq 


1-5 
























































J 



% 
K 










a 
to 










d 
S25 











c 

o 

w 

-a 
'o 



x 

o 
o 

o 



o 
o 
W 

H 

x> 
o 
t—» 

H 



a 

t-H 



256 



MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 



drawing a line through them. These articles will be charged by the foreman 
on the material card and to the labor account, adding so much to the cost of 
the work. 

We will now consider consumable stock, material, tools, and supplies and 



Name of Company. 
SPECIAL ^MATERIAL REQUISITION. 

Order No . Date, 



The following is required by reason 
of DEFECTIVE, SPOILED OR LOST 
MATERIAL OR REJECTED PARTS, 
OF "MACHINES. 



Part 

No. 



Material 



Cost 



Nam 
SPECIAL MA'TB 



Order No. 



The following' 
reason of DEfI 
LOST MATER '. 
PARTS OF Mi. 



Part 
No. 



Matei 



Fig. 176. — Size, 8i x 11 in. Color, Bright Red. 



how they are to be treated. Coal for boilers, for cupolas, for forge shops; 
coke for foundry and forge shop; charcoal for forge shop; wood, etc., will be 
purchased in large quantities, as will also molding sand for foundry and 



1 ■" — 1 
Name of Company. Name 

FUEL ACCOUNT FUEL 

of t.hft . „ * of £he 


! 

For week ending. j For week ending 




tfuel 


Amount 


Cost | Fuel 











Fig. 



177. 



Size, 5-0 x 8-| in. Color, Chocolate. 

stored for use. Returns of amounts used will be made to the cost clerk 
weekly. This return for fuel is shown in Fig. 177. The weekly return for 
molding sand, etc., will be a similar form. These are filled out in duplicate, 
one part being retained by the department from which it comes. 

Consumable stock, materials, and tools for the different departments are 
drawn on requisitions made in duplicate, one part retained by the storekeeper 
and the other returned with the articles as an invoice, by which method each 



THE SUPERINTENDENT'S OFFICE 



257 



foreman may know the expense in his department for these articles, as well 
as the expense of each of his men in this respect. By consumable articles is 
meant, of course, waste, oil, files, brushes, emery and emery cloth, and all 
similar articles issued by the storekeeper and consumed or worn out in the 
shop. Fig. 178 is the blank to be used. These requisitions will not be sent to 
the storeroom by the workmen, but by an errand boy, who may profitably be 
employed in one large or two or three small departments. 

It will have been noticed that little has been said in this chapter as to the 
form of books to be used. The reason is that with the exception of such as 
have been described, they are the ordinary ones that need no special mention, 
and the proper ones will readily suggest themselves. The manufacturers of 



NAME OF COMPANY. 

SUPPLY REQUISITION. 




NAME 

supply/ 

FOR 


DATE._ _ 






WORKMAN'S NAME, 
NO. 


WORKMAN'S NAME, 
NO 




ARTICLES 


COST 


ART 








- ■ 



Fig. 178. — Size, 5! x 8J in. Color, Manila. 

the time clock mentioned herein furnish a very compact and useful form of 
pay roll ledger in which the names of employees need be written only once in 
three months, and may be used to considerable advantage and with a saving 
of time. 

The " loose leaf" system will be found very convenient for the book- 
keepers, and may be used in several ways in the accounting. The principal 
advantages of its use are the ready manner in which the leaves may be 
removed and entries made on them by the typewriter, and the fact that all 
pages that are filled up and not needed from day to day may be removed 
and filed in transfer cases. 

In the calculations of time and cost some mechanical aids will save 
much mental drudgery and give a feeling of security as to correct results. 
A number of good machines of this class are in the market, among them 
the Burroughs, Universal and Standard Adding Machines, the Locke Adder 
and the Comptometer. In even a small plant some one of these machines 
will be a welcome and useful addition to the office equipment. 



CHAPTER XXVII 

THE PROBLEM OF APPORTIONING THE FIXED CHARGES 

Estimating. Cost keeping. Productive and non-productive costs. Diversity of opinion 
among accountants. Errors of the old systems. Popular idea that the expense of a 
proper cost system is greater than its benefits. Good judgment necessary. Lumping 
non-productive expenses. "All costs are productive costs." Ascertaining costs by a 
fixed machine and man rate. A percentage by averaging the total costs except those 
for labor and material Dividing expenses into an unnecessarily large number of 
classes. The life of the machine taken into account. Accounting for the burden of 
fixed charges is the problem. Qualifications of a cost clerk. The "simple plan" is 
not a cost system. The two general plans. The time, or hourly plan. The labor 
cost plan. What are fixed charges. The expense burden. Supplemental expenses. 
The general burden. The proper system. Cost of land and buildings. Cost of 
light, heat, and power plants, and permanent fixtures. Insurance, taxes, water rates, 
maintenance, depreciation, etc. Area of floor surface. Non-productive expenses. 
Ascertaining the expense burden of a machine. Depreciation and interest. Classi- 
fying machines as to cost. The burden of idle machines. Importance of this factor. 
Faults of the old system of equipping the departments. A practical illustration. The 
proper method. The five factors of cost. Drawing room and pattern shop expenses. 
The floor space plan. Machine burden in the pattern shop. Charging the cost of 
regular patterns. Tool room costs. Work on regular orders. Work on tools, jigs, 
and fixtures. Burden of idle machines. Cost of consumable tools and supplies. 
Cost of transportation of material. Cost of machine repairs. Rebuilt machines. 
Calculating the cost of power, lighting, heating, etc. The value of this cost system. 
Important facts may be ascertained. Pointers for better management Shows what 
departments are the more efficiently managed. Unnecessary machines. The fluc- 
tuations of business. Not a relatively expensive system. Showing where the troubles 
are. 

The purpose of this chapter is to point out the methods for ascertaining 
and apportioning the fixed charges, office and salary, as well as the miscella- 
neous expenses, including those for interest and depreciation of machines and 
allowances for idle machines, all usually comprised under the general head of 
"burden." A prominent writer on the management of machine shop plants 
as commercial enterprises once wrote, "Upon the ability of the proper official 
to make correct estimates depends, to a very large extent, the commercial 
success of all manufacturing enterprises"; and in this aphorism he embodied 
much truth. Admitting the truth and importance of his statement, we are 

258 



PROBLEM OF APPORTIONING THE FLXED CHARGES 259 

nevertheless forced to the conclusion that were he to write of machine shop 
management in these times of sharp competition and close calculations he 
would also give a prominent place to the system of cost keeping and its nu- 
merous ramifications, pervading as they do every kind and class of material, 
from the time it enters the building up to its shipment. 

The urgent desire for information is well illustrated by the editor of a 
mechanical journal, who says, " There is no inquiry which comes to this office 
more often than the request for sources of information on machine shop cost 
keeping." And he might have added that in this search for information there 
could hardly be a question upon which there would be a greater diversity of 
opinion. The reason for this is not far to seek since the science of correct 
cost keeping (if we may so dignify it) is as yet but imperfectly understood 
and the ever varying conditions where it must be attempted render the appli- 
cation of any large number of fixed rules impracticable. 

It has often been said that there are many ways of accounting for the 
time spent on the different jobs in the shop, and for dividing the so-called 
productive from the non-productive expenses in this direction, but there is a 
still greater diversity of opinion and practice in accounting for the burden of 
fixed and miscellaneous expenses, as well as for properly ascertaining them. 

When they are all considered and brought out in all their diversified 
aspects, and in proper relation to each other, the result may surprise many 
good accountants as well as business men and proprietors, who have used the 
old methods of assessing a certain percentage of the cost of material and labor 
as the proper burden which they should bear in calculating the actual cost 
of the product. This being a level percentage (though jobs may be in large 
variety and done at a bench, or on a power-driven thousand-dollar machine), 
is usually in error, sometimes too great, but often too small, and the result, 
even if the entire establishment pays a profit, still leaves uncertainty as to its 
source, since there are parts of the work done more economically than others, 
and some departments which should properly be credited with producing 
more profit owing to the better local management. 

In the case above cited, the head of a department who manages his working 
force and his equipment with the greater skill and forethought has to assume 
a part of the burden that another foreman partly avoids. When the cost of 
individual parts, or separate operations upon them, is not known, we lose sight 
of opportunities for improving upon manufacturing methods. 

Many realize the practical advantages that might accrue from a thorough 
knowledge of manufacturing costs, but have an idea that the expense would 
be greater than the benefit. It is, however, practicable to ascertain with 
considerable accuracy just what portion of the product has been manufactured 
at a loss and what portion was sold at a sufficient profit, as well as to ascertain 



260 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

what departments of the shop are the more efficient, in order that the proper 
investigation and remedy may be applied to those which are not up to the 
proper standard. 

To show the great diversity of opinions and practices in the matter of 
ascertaining and apportioning the burden of fixed and miscellaneous charges 
in different shops at the present time, the following instances are given as stated 
by the manufacturers or the accountants themselves. They show the views of 
the several gentlemen and the various methods used under the varying condi- 
tions of manufacturing, as well as the great variety of the product. 

In one manufactory the man who has charge of the cost-keeping says 
that a great deal of good judgment is necessary in distributing the fixed charges 
and the cost of non-productive labor, but thinks that if all money paid out for 
these expenses is charged to some account all will be well. It is true that a 
good deal of good judgment is necessary; in fact in the best and most exact 
system for ascertaining and apportioning the multitude of expense items we 
may find problems solvable by no common rule. These must of necessity be 
decided by the highest rule of all, the rule of judgment, founded upon practice 
and experience. It is not enough to say that we may simply charge the large 
variety of expenses to some account and then expect any reasonable degree of 
accuracy in ascertaining detailed costs, for the reason, as before stated, that 
we shall overcharge some articles of the product while others do not bear fair 
share of the normal burden of expense. 

Another manufacturer says that the expense of the entire superintendent's 
department, including foremen, plumbers, electricians, watchmen, the drawing 
room, general repair department, pattern shop, etc., should be considered as 
non-productive, while the next manufacturer says, "In our factory we do not 
recognize that there is any such thing as non-productive costs. All factory 
costs with us are productive costs, because they enter into the costs of goods 
produced." Here is a wide divergence of opinion and practice. 

Again, a manufacturer has this method. He has a fixed price per hour 
for each machine and the man who runs it. This charge added to the cost 
of material is the "flat cost," to which is added a percentage of fixed and non- 
productive costs as ascertained month by month, or once in three months. 
This plan comes nearer being correct, provided the proper method is used to 
determine the amount charged on account of the machine. 

At present it is sufficient to call attention to the fact that the correct valua- 
tion of the machines, the floor space occupied, the power required, and what 
we shall do with the cost of those that are occasionally or frequently idle, as 
they occupy the floor space, which must be kept clean with the machine, and 
this costs, excepting power and lubrication, as much as if the machine were 
performing profitable operations, is a matter of much importance. 



PROBLEM OF APPORTIONING THE FIXED CHARGES 261 

Still another manufacturer gets at his non-productive costs by the per- 
centage which this amount bears to the combined labor and material costs. 
The resulting percentage is used for the next six months and so on. The 
fixed percentage can be added to each class of goods manufactured, or to indi- 
vidual machines, or even to machine parts. It would not be accurate if any 
one important item had fluctuated considerably in price, as is frequently the 
case, for the reason that an extra high price paid for a leading material, as 
pig iron for instance, in cases where large quantities of castings are used, 
would burden the job with more of the non-productive costs than it ought to 
bear, and correspondingly reduce those burdens on other jobs which required 
proportionately small quantities of iron castings. It is therefore evident that 
this plan is open to very serious objections. 

Another manufacturer divides what he calls " miscellaneous charges," 
not including interest, rent, insurance, etc., into no less than fifty-seven ac- 
counts, one of which contains seventy-five subheads or classes. This would 
seem like an unnecessary number of accounts and a plan by which the practical 
information to be gained would hardly be worth the care and cost. While 
these various items enter into the calculations of non-productive miscellaneous 
costs, and it may be useful to know the cost of the different classes of material 
and supplies purchased at different periods, or supplied to the various depart- 
ments, for purposes of comparison, these considerations need not necessarily 
become a part of the cost system, by which we understand the actual expenses 
of all kinds properly chargeable to the production of the goods when ready 
for the market, under whatever particular heading they may be charged. 

The next manufacturer, perceiving the point that the value and usefulness 
of the machines, and their cost as to floor space occupied, power required to 
drive them, and their maintenance, are proper factors in the problem of ac- 
counting for costs, proposes that in calculating a percentage of depreciation 
on the value of a machine, "the life of each machine should be learned as 
nearly as possible and the percentage of that life which would be used in making 
a given number of articles should be charged against such given number," 
etc., a sort of "life expectancy," as the life insurance man would say, but 
what cost clerk would want to serve as an "actuary" in an establishment where 
there are several hundred machines and as many different kinds of parts or 
articles to estimate upon. This plan would call for additional clerical assist- 
ance, which is one of the conditions we seek to avoid. We must not forget, 
however, that some such plan would be valuable in considering large and 
expensive machines which are not in continuous use, and are often idle for 
days and perhaps weeks. In such cases the interest charge is relatively high 
and the depreciation charge relatively low compared with less expensive 
machines in practically continuous use. These considerations add to this 



262 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

many-sided problem and render it more perplexing as we endeavor to give 
the varied factors proper attention and weight. 

In accounting for the actual costs of the product, and fixing upon an 
adequate plan, we are confronted principally with the problem of accounting 
for the burden of fixed charges, non-productive labor, and miscellaneous 
expenses, and it is just here that many otherwise good accountants fail to show 
the facts and conditions that it is important to know. 

While the cost clerk must be a good bookkeeper, with a clear insight into 
all the clerical phases of the problems involved and an ability to prepare correct 
records of the business transacted, he must also often reason as a mechanic 
with a certain array of facts, in order to deduce from them conclusions of 
value to the degree of efficiency the shop has attained in the manufacture of 
a machine part and its efficient routine through the works. These conditions 
will be puzzling to a man who is simply a commercial accountant. We should 
hardly expect that a bank accountant would be much of a success in handling 
the cost system of a manufacturing establishment. 

We may easily ascertain the sum total of all fixed charges and miscel- 
laneous expenses, and so divide this sum as to have "all moneys paid out 
(except for material and labor) charged against something," but this method 
could hardly be dignified as a cost system. To properly divide and apportion 
these costs is the correct aim and sphere of a cost system if it is to be a valuable 
aid in understanding the details of manufacturing and increasing the efficiency 
of equipment and employees. 

Two general plans are frequently used for this purpose and their variations 
adapted to suit individual conditions. In the first of these the method charges 
to each job a percentage of the total burden of fixed and of miscellaneous 
expenses in proportion to the number of hours of direct labor. This is found 
by dividing the total burden of expenses by the total number of hours worked 
for a given period, say three or six months, or a year, thus obtaining an hour 
rate which may be added to the cost of labor and material to make up the actual 
cost of the job. This plan is defective, as it places all classes of labor, skilled 
or unskilled, and whether working with a few hand tools or with an expensive 
machine, on a level. By this method a job done largely on machines would 
not bear its fair share, while the job done at a bench, by hand, will bear ex- 
cessive burden. Such a plan could only be of any reasonable degree of accu- 
racy where the employees were on a near equality as to wages and the work 
done on machines of nearly equal cost, floor space and power. These con- 
ditions will seldom be met, hardly ever over an entire factory and we might say 
never in a machine shop. 

The second plan apportions the expense burden on a basis of the direct 
labor cost for each job. In this case the total burden is divided by the total 



PrlOBLEM OF APPORTIONING THE FIXED CHARGES 263 

amount paid for direct labor for a given period (as before), and, using this 
quotient as a percentage of burden, it is to be added to the cost of direct labor 
and material on each job. The fallacy of this plan is that it takes no account 
of the very important factor of time. For instance, if a low priced man 
occupies twice the time in doing a job on a certain machine as a man getting 
twice the pay, it naturally follows that while the cost of labor has been the 
same, the cheap man has occupied the machine twice as long and yet the 
burden charged against the machine has been the same. This is manifestly 
wrong, and might easily make a great deal of difference in the correctness of 
the outcome, particularly in a shop where there is a great diversity in the cost 
of the machines, and in fact render the system useless so far as giving accurate 
results or even uniform results. 

While the time or hourly plan corrects some of the defects of the plan of 
percentage of burden to the cost of labor plan, it brings in quite as erroneous 
ones of its own. It takes no cognizance of the value of the machines used, 
whether they cost a hundred dollars or a thousand, and a speed lathe might 
be assessed with just as much burden as a 72-inch planer. Again, a boy 
earning six dollars a week would count for as much by this plan as a machinist 
getting three dollars a day, so far as the expense burden is concerned. This 
plan would work many glaring errors, particularly in a manufactory with a 
large variety of machines and where the work ranges from comparatively 
small to quite large and heavy parts. In manufacturing establishments where 
the work is quite uniform and the machines upon which it is done are nearly 
of the same first cost, and where the wages of the operatives do not vary to 
any considerable extent, either of the above plans may answer all reasonable 
purposes. 

But if we are to carefully examine the matter we shall see that w T here 
these conditions do not prevail we must look for some plan better suited to 
the prevailing conditions, and one that, while necessarily more intricate and 
expensive to administer, will tell with a reasonable degree of accuracy the 
costs of our products of whatever class, weight, or material, and enable us to 
know when and where losses and profits occur and what class of product, 
what department, or what individuals are responsible for the one or the other. 

By "fixed charges" will be understood interest on the cost of land, build- 
ings, and fixtures, insurance, taxes, water rates, etc. By " expense burden" 
will be meant the cost of so-called non-productive labor, the cost of power, 
lighting, heating, and ventilating, cleaning shop, interest on cost, and the 
depreciation of value of machines, etc. By " supplemental expenses" will be 
meant the burden charge on idle machines, etc. By " general burden" will 
be understood the sum of all three of the above charges. 

Each machine forming a part of the equipment of the manufacturing 



264 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

plant should bear a portion of the general burden according to its first cost 
and annual depreciation, and incidentally an additional portion due to the 
fact that some of the machines are sometimes idle, therefore earning: nothing 
Each employee not working at a machine should have a due portion of floor 
space burden charged in addition to his wages. Since the only source of 
revenue is that derived from the manufactured product sold, it follows that 
all expense of whatever kind must be borne as a burden upon the manufacture 
of these products for the market. 

The entire volume of work in the shops is made up of a succession of jobs, 
each of which has a distinguishing number. They may, however, be classified 
as product, improvements, repairs, tool making, experimental, and so on. 

We may properly commence with the first expenses incurred, the cost of 
the land upon which the buildings are erected. Then the cost of the buildings. 
Then the cost of the power, lighting, heating, and ventilating plants, and the 
plant for the transmission of power, including shafting, belting, electric wiring, 
dynamos, motors, lamps, and all fixed accessories. In this list of costs are 
all partitions, railings, shelvings, bins, racks, benches, fixed desks, shop 
railway tracks and cars, office fixtures and furniture, shop telephones, and 
all similar appliances not directly connected with the machines. We will add 
these costs together and ascertain the interest upon the amount per year. 

To the amount thus ascertained we will add insurance on buildings, fix- 
tures, etc., taxes, water rates, depreciation and maintenance of buildings, cost 
of furnishing power, light, heat, and ventilation, per year. To this add also 
the salary of superintendent, assistant, office force, foremen, watchmen, errand 
boys, etc., and office maintenance. This will cover our fixed charges plus the 
expense burden, which is to be divided by the area of floor surface in square 
feet, giving the burden which every square foot must bear whether occupied 
by a machine, a work bench, or as an erecting floor or other use. This 
expense must be gotten out of the sale of product in such a manner as to bear 
in equal proportion on all jobs in considering carefully the difference of the 
value of the use of the equipment involved in each of them individually. 

Having ascertained the burden due to cost of buildings, power, lighting, 
heating, ventilating, and maintenance, together with the wages of so-called 
non-producers, so far as these will be constant, or very nearly so from year to 
year, we next consider the question of the burden due to the expense of the 
equipment of machines required for the work contemplated. 

It has been pointed out that by one of the plans discussed the difference 
in time was disregarded, and in another the difference in wages, while in both 
the difference in the cost of the machines upon which the work was done was 
lost sight of entirely. In this present plan the method of properly accounting 
for this burden will be explained. 



PROBLEM OF APPORTIONING THE FIXED CHARGES 265 

To ascertain the expense burden of a machine wc first consider its first 
cost, then its annual depreciation, the insurance upon its value, and lastly the 
expense to house and drive it, in order to fully cover the conditions of the 
case. 

It is customary to fix 10 per cent on the first cost of a new machine for 
annual interest and depreciation. For the next year we subtract 5 per cent 
from the original cost and use this result in fixing the next valuation. To 
this amount we add the expense burden of so much per square foot of floor 
space occupied by it and its operator, as found by the expense burden per- 
centage previously explained. 

While it will not usually be convenient to go over all the machines each 
year and assess them separately as to their cost, neither will it be necessary 
as they may be divided into groups or classes on the following plan: those 
costing $500 or less; those from $500 to $1,000; then by even thousands 
upwards. Every machine should be numbered in large, plain figures on a 
conspicuous part, and its special rate recorded in a book kept by the cost 
clerk, giving its changed rate each year. The employee using a machine will 
note on his job time card, in a space provided for that purpose, the number 
of the machine, for the information of the cost clerk, who may thus assess 
the proper expense burden on the job. 

There is one more element or factor of burden. This is the hourly burden 
of idle machines, or the supplemental expense, and is disposed of in this 
manner. By having on the job time cards the numbers of all the machines 
in actual use, and having the numbers of all machines in the shop, the cost 
clerk readily knows what machines are not in use. An account of the 
machine rates thus incurred is kept during the month and distributed pro 
rata over the jobs during the succeeding month. While this is not strictly 
correct in theory it will be found equitable in practice and is much more 
easily accomplished than an attempt to follow up each job in the department 
containing the idle machines and distribute this burden among them before 
the account on each was closed. 

There is an important point gained by this account of the machines idle, 
in the whole shop, and also in the different departments. It tells a very 
graphic story of the management of the department in keeping all the 
machines at work, and the opportunity for placing them in other depart- 
ments where they will be more constantly employed, or disposing of them alto- 
gether. It should be very distinctly kept in mind that every idle machine 
means lost money. 

One of the expensive drawbacks of the older practice of building an entire 
machine in one department, and another machine of different type or size in 
another department, rather than to so divide the work as to have the depart- 



266 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

ment equipped with machines of one type (as planers) and the next with 
another type (as lathes) and so on, is that while one department will be crowded 
with one class of work, say planer work, the next one will have their planers 
idle and the lathes will be crowded. The author remembers one shop arranged 
after these ancient ideas in which, by actual count, nearly two thirds of all 
the machines of the plant were idle at a time, and largely owing to the above 
causes, thereby throwing on each machine in use the expense burden belonging 
to three machines. This meant that the shop in general was equipped with 
about three times the number of machines necessary to do the required work 
by a modern organization plan, and therefore lost that much money unneces- 
sarily. 

By our plan all the machines of a class or type are located in one depart- 
ment, and the departments so arranged that in the natural succession of 
operations the work passes from the first department to the adjoining one 
whenever possible, and so continues until completed. Thus we get the maxi- 
mum of continuous service from the smallest number of machines and have 
very few idle ones, consequently the minimum burden of this character. 

z y our plan of accounting for the cost of a given job we find it made up 
of five separate factors or charges, brought together by the cost clerk. These 
are: first, the cost of direct labor: second, the cost of material; third, the fixed 
charges; fourth, the expense burden on the machines used; and fifth, a due 
proportion of extra burden on account of idle machines. 

The drawing room and pattern shop expenses require special notice. In 
the usual discussion of shop costs perhaps they have not had a fair share of 
attention. It often happens that both drawings and patterns are directly 
chargeable to certain jobs as are of special nature. In calculating these 
charges we go about it in the same general manner as in ascertaining the 
cost of jobs in the machine shop proper. That is. charging for time occupied, 
material used, and to this is added a burden of fixed charges and an expens 
burden consisting of its proper proportion of the cost of non-productive labor, 
lighting, heating, ventilating, and cleaning, which, in the drawing room, will 
be assessed by the total area of floor surface occupied by this department 
divided by the number of men employed, to ascertain the burden rate per 
man, which is to be added to the time and material cost. 

In the pattern shop the same method is used for men whose work does 
not require the use of a machine. For those who work continuously at a 
machine the same method as employed in the machine shop will be used, the 
machine having a regular rating. Frequently the machines are used only for 
a fraction of an hour at a time, and the cost is hardly worth the time it will 
take to ascertain it. This charge will naturally fall into the fifth factor of 
cost. 



PROBLEM OF APPORTIONING THE FIXED CHARGES 267 

Under other circumstances both drawings and patterns are required for 
the regular output of machines or other articles manufactured. While these 
might in many instances relate only to a certain size or type of machine to be 
built, it would seem quite evident that the expense should be added to the 
fixed burden, for the same reason that we charge office furniture or shop fix- 
tures, they becoming an asset of the establishment. 

One of the machine shop departments about whose expense there seems 
to be much diversity of opinion is the tool room. It is liable to be employed 
on quite a variety of work, sometimes on orders for product to be sold, but 
more often for the making or repairing of tools, jigs, and fixtures for use on 
the machines in the manufacturing departments of the machine shop. When 
at work on regular orders, or any part of them, the charge will be the same 
as if the work were done in the machine shop proper, the machines in use 
here being rated in the same manner. 

It is also clear that in making or grinding tools for lathe and planer work, 
cutters for milling and gear cutting, etc., and for making, altering, or repairing 
jigs and fixtures, we are adding so much to the equipment and its usefulness, 
and the expense should be borne by the machines in the machine shop on 
which they are used. Therefore it would seem proper that a percentage on 
first cost and for depreciation should be added in with the fourth charge in 
calculating the cost of a job. Of course this charge should only apply to the 
machine shop proper and the burden not carried to the accounts of other 
departments outside of it. It may be noted that the handling of the tool room 
accounts should be done cautiously, as a careless apportioning of the costs 
may lead to very serious errors. 

The burden of idle machines in the tool room must be borne by the 
fifth factor in our cost account, for the reason that they are engaged either 
directly or indirectly in the production of the articles to be sold, the manufac- 
ture of which requires the use of the tools and appliances here made and 
maintained in useful condition. 

Consumable tools and supplies such as files, waste, oil, etc., used on 
machines, drawn for use in the machine shop proper, will be classed as a part 
of the fourth factor of cost. This will not include waste and oil issued to the 
power plant, although the costs eventually find their way into the same group 
of charges. 

The transportation of material or parts of machines being built, whether 
moved by shop railway, trucks, or cranes, becomes a charge on the job. In 
case of the use of trucks or the shop railway the machine rate, if we may so 
call it, has been considered already. In case of large traveling cranes, the 
crane is considered as a machine and rated accordingly. Where a man is 
required continually in attendance upon it his time may be charged to the 



268 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

fourth factor of cost. The same may be said of sweepers and such helpers 
as are sometimes engaged on general work not properly chargeable to any 
particular job. 

Cranes serving only one machine are considered as a part of that machine 
and so charged in fixing the machine rate. Electric motors by which machines 
are driven should properly be considered as a part of the power plant, whether 
they are operating individual machines or line shafts driving a number of 
machines. 

The cost of all repairs on machines should be kept and once in six months 
5 per cent of the amount accruing during that time added to the machine 
rates. If the cost of repairs is comparatively slight the account may run 
through the entire year. If a machine is practically rebuilt a portion of the 
amount charged off for annual depreciation must be restored to its value. 

In calculating the cost of power, lighting, heating, and ventilating we must 
not forget that if there are some buildings somewhat isolated from the main 
buildings of the plant they should be assessed somewhat more per square foot 
of floor area on account of the added cost of conveying power, light, and heat 
to them. These conditions should be carefully investigated and the burden 
put where it belongs. Unless the distance is considerable these variations of 
cost will not be very important, yet our cost system should show their influence. 

While our cost system is primarily intended to show the actual costs of 
all work done, it does, if wisely administered, show us other facts equally 
important in the successful management of a machine shop or manufacturing 
plant. For instance : if the cost of a certain job is noticeably higher or lower 
than usual we may easily ascertain why it is so, as we may consider the five 
factors going to make up the actual cost of the job and find at once in which 
of them has been the loss or gain. It will be readily understood that a high 
priced man may be the more economical, as the time occupied on the job will 
be less and consequently the machine burden less, while the reverse will be 
true with cheap help. 

We may also see that with the work plentiful and the charge for idle 
machines running up, there is something wrong in the department where it 
occurs, and apply the needed remedy. It will show us which department is 
the more efficient and turns out its work the cheaper. It will show which 
department is the more economical in the use of consumable supplies. It 
will show the relative cost of machine repairs in the different departments. 
It will show in any of the departments where new machines are asked for, 
whether those already in use are profitably occupied, and if not, we may 
investigate the reasons for their not being used and the advisability of their 
removal to another department, and possibly the substitution of a machine 
better adapted to the special needs of the work. 



PROBLEM OF APPORTIONING THE FIXED CHARGES 269 

These conclusions cannot be so ascertained by any of the prevailing 
methods of averaging all or even the principal part of the factors that go to 
make up the total cost of the work done. By the use of the fifth factor, that 
of a proportion of extra burden on account of idle machines, we may get a 
good idea of what portion of the costs may be due to the fluctuations of busi- 
ness prosperity or depression. It may be argued that this system is intricate 
and expensive to administer. In proportion to the importance of the facts 
brought out this is not relatively true. If we really want the information in 
detail and in as accurate a form as the conditions will permit, we must pay 
for it in some way. 

Often in the expensive school of sad experience we may know that some- 
thing is going wrong, but we cannot assure ourselves of why, when, or where 
the trouble is located. By this plan we know all the facts worth knowing as 
we go along, and they cannot but be valuable aids in machine shop manage- 
ment. It will be noted that in this chapter we have not covered the matter 
of marketing the product, therefore the expenses of advertising and selling, 
as well as a proper percentage of profit, must be added to the costs as ascertained 
by this cost system in order to arrive at what shall be the selling prices of the 
goods manufactured. But as compared with properly ascertaining the actual 
factory cost of the product, this is a comparatively easy problem to solve. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

THE DRAFTING ROOM 

The department of design. The real work of the draftsman. Routine of the room. Gen- 
eral rules. Keeping the time. Drawing materials. Tracings. Poor materials is 
poor economy. Brown or black prints. Sizes of drawings. Too many sizes not 
desirable. Drawing cards. Desirable scales for drawings. Dates on drawings. 
Draftsmen's names on drawings. Shade lines. Dotted lines. Center lines. Dimen- 
sion lines. Dimension figures. Conventional section lining. Titles. Plain letter- 
ing desirable. Mounting blueprints. System of machine symbols. Designation of 
machine parts. Marking patterns. Part numbers on drawings. Storing and filing 
drawings, tracings, and blueprints. Construction of drawers for holding drawings and 
tracings. Separating drawings and tracings into groups. Strawboard filing sheets. 
Indexing and filing drawings. Issuing and recovering drawings. Orders for blue or 
brown prints. Card system for filing, issuing, and recovering blueprints. Adhering 
to the regular system. 

The drafting room is the department of design, where we expect ideas to 
originate for improving the product of the shop, as well as the methods of 
doing work. It should have the most accurate and efficient, and at the same 
time the simplest system and routine in its daily work. The draftsmen should 
be relieved as far as possible of clerical work. Their minds should not be 
burdened with a long list of symbols or complicated rules. They should be 
free to give their best attention to the real business for which they are employed, 
that of designing and drawing, and thus make the drafting room in fact, what 
it is often facetiously called by the machine shop men, "the brain room." 
Therefore the men at the drawing tables should not be concerned about the 
making of blueprints, their mounting, their issue to the shop, or their recovery 
and storage. This is properly the duty of apprentices under the direction of 
the chief. 

The routine of the room should be carried on quietly. Orders should be 
given only by the chief. Employees from other departments should be ex- 
cluded unless sent by their superiors upon inter-department business. Drafts- 
men should not work over eight hours a day and should not be expected to sit 
at the board more than two hours continuously. If designing, this period 
may be too long, without the relaxation of walking about for a quarter of an 

270 



THE DRAFTING ROOM 271 

hour. More and better work will thus be done and with considerably less 
fatigue to the men. 

The time of the men on all work should be carefully kept on time cards 
in connection with a time recording clock, in order that the cost may be known 
with the same accuracy as in the machine shop. For this purpose each man 
registers both day time cards, showing the amount due him on the pay roll, 
and job time cards giving the time spent on each job and aggregating the same 
time as recorded on the day time cards. 

One of the things w T hich ought to receive careful attention is the selection 
of proper materials, particularly drawing paper and tracing materials. White 
drawing paper for the ordinary sizes of regular sheets should be purchased in 
rolls 36 or 48 inches wide and of such quality as to stand hard usage under the 
erasing rubber; to have a surface hard enough not to gather dust readily and 
yet with sufficient grain to take the pencil and ink easily; to lie perfectly flat 
on the drawing board and to be capable of damp-stretching if necessary. 
That of medium thickness will generally give the best satisfaction. 

Tracings should be made on tracing cloth 36 inches wide and with a 
dull back. " Imperial" tracing cloth, while rather more expensive than some 
other kinds, is the more economical in the end. It is poor policy to pay a 
draftsman for the extra time wasted by poor tracing cloth. The dull back 
cloth is convenient for applying a pigment or soft lead pencil to the back in 
ordinary sectional views where a quick job is required. 

Tracing paper should be used only for temporary jobs of a simple char- 
acter. The same may be said of the use of bond paper, which has deceived 
so many draftsmen with the idea that the original drawings and tracing may 
just as well be made on one piece of material as a matter of economy. Such 
a tracing will become cracked and ruined in a short time, even with careful 
handling, while its tendency to wrinkle makes it a source of continual annoy- 
ance to the blue printer, who also finds that the pressure necessary for a good 
contact with the blueprint paper must be much more than with tracing 
cloth, or the prints will be blurred and indistinct. 

The use of brown or black prints for such small diagrams, foundation 
plans, sketches, etc., as are sent to outside parties, is to be commended. These 
prints are very convenient and present a good appearance, particularly when 
the first print is used as a negative and preserved, while the prints from it, in 
brown lines on the white surface, are sent out. Where brown prints are 
used, any letters or figures to be filled in should be done in brown ink. 

The most convenient size of drawings for use in the shop will depend to 
a considerable extent upon the product. While a large drawing may be very 
convenient, in that it displays the work on a large scale and is easily read by 
workmen, it is at the same time clumsy, often in the way, and more liable to 



272 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

accident than a smaller one. But if the drawings are too small they must 
often represent the work on so small a scale that the lines and dimensions will 
be crowded, and necessitate small letters and figures, whereby the liability to 
errors by the workmen is much increased. 

It is, of course, much more convenient to handle and to care for small 
drawings than large ones, both in the shop and in the drafting room, and the 
smaller sizes are not nearly so liable to injury. If we assume that the whole 
sheet or unit of our sizes is 24 x 36 inches, we may conveniently obtain the 
following sizes with no waste of drawing paper, tracing cloth, or blueprint 
paper, namely: double sheet, 36 x 48 inches; whole sheet, 24 x 36 inches; half 
sheet, 18 x 24 inches; quarter sheet, 12 x 18 inches; and sketching sheet, 9 
x 12 inches. Ordinarily, construction drawings can be confined to the first 
two sizes, while for very large sheets a quadruple size of 48 x 72 inches may 
be used. These large sizes will readily fold to fit in a drawer suitable for 
24 x 36 inch sheets, which will be preferable to rolling them. In folding such 
drawings care should be taken not to press the folds so firmly as to cause deep 
creasings, with the danger of the paper giving way by repeated folding. The 
best sizes for use in the shop as well as for handling in the drafting room will 
be found to be 18 x 24 inches and 24 x 36 inches, the former having the 
preference. It is advisable to confine the drawings for the shop to one size 
if it can be done without sacrificing convenience and efficiency to the demands 
of uniformity. 

In the manufacture of small parts in large numbers it is often a matter 
of great convenience to use thick cards, 9x12 inches, with round corners, upon 
which a drawing of a single piece is made. The drawing is varnished on both 
sides with at least two coats of bleached shellac, that on the back preventing 
the warping of the cards due to the varnish on the face. These cards are 
convenient to handle and store and are economical, as no mounting is required, 
and they are much more durable than might be supposed. 

When drawings are not made full size, the question of the most desirable 
scale should be carefully considered, with a view to selecting one not so large 
as to fill the sheet too much, or so small as to crowd the various parts shown. 
That scale is best with which the draftsmen may work with least liability to 
error. Many find that the scale of half size, or 6 in. = i ft, is very unfortu- 
nate in this respect, and most of them will no doubt prefer the quarter scale, 
3 in. = i ft, whenever it can be used. The eighth scale, ij in. = i ft., is 
properly a favorite where a smaller scale is desired, while the general draw- 
ing of a large machine completely assembled may require a scale of | in. = i 
ft. or 1 in. = i ft.; but this will seldom occur in the usual course of machine 
drawing. 

The scale should always be clearly marked on every sheet. If it is drawn 



THE DRAFTING ROOM 273 

full size, that should be stated. The fear that machinists will measure a 
drawing rather than depend on the figures and thereby make errors in the 
work is a needless one under nearly all circumstance^, and is largely over- 
balanced by the convenience of having the scales plainly indicated in all 
instances. It is equally important that the dates be given. On a construction 
drawing the date when it is commenced and when it is completed should both 
appear. On all other drawings the date should be that of completion. This 
should be supplemented by the dates of alterations made on the drawing and 
the dates of the original tracing, and any subsequent ones made necessary by 
such changes. 

Ail drawings should show when and by whom the dimensions are checked. 
The name of the draftsman should appear in full on all construction drawings 
and his initials on all other drawings or tracings. These precautions will 
often greatly facilitate following up a design and the subsequent changes in 
connection with it. 

Considerable controversy has been had on the point whether shade lines 
are appropriate on mechanical drawings. When the arguments are all in it 
would seem but fair to say that there is no good reason why they should not 
be used and several very good reasons why they should. One reason only 
appears necessary for using them — they make the drawing much easier to 
read by the machinist, hence there is less liability to error, and less time is 
spent by him in deciphering complicated drawings. 

Dotted lines should have the dots and spaces of equal length and ordi- 
narily not less than ten dots to the inch. Center lines should consist of a 
succession of dashes separated by two dots, the groups of two dots and one 
dash occupying about f inch. Spaces as above. Dimension lines should 
be a series of dashes separated by one dot, and of lengths and spaces as above. 
All dimensions up to 3 feet should be given in inches and common fractions 
of an inch; dimensions greater than 3 feet, in feet, inches, and common frac- 
tions of an inch. 

When work requiring fine measurements is to be drawn it will be found 
necessary to use decimal dimension figures rather than to use the smaller 
common fractions of an inch — therefore the use of decimal fractions should 
be encouraged. For fine work they are practically indispensable. The 
numerator and denominator of a common fraction should never be separated 
by a diagonal line, but always with one parallel to the dimension line. Gothic 
figures should always be used, the lines of which should be of equal width 
throughout. Figures should read properly when the sheet is so held that the 
title reads properly. When this cannot be done they should read properly 
when the sheet is turned with its right-hand edge next to the reader. 

Sections may be distinguished on tracings by going over the back of the 






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ZZc Z 



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rr 



THE DRAFTING ROOM 



275 



time to tell its story briefly. It should tell us what set of drawings it belongs 
to, naming the machine; what part of the machine it represents; the scale to 
which it is drawn, and the date when it was completed. 

On construction drawings the date when it was commenced should also 
be given. It should show what draftsman drew it; when and by whom it 
was traced, checked, and altered. It should give the name of the establish- 
ment. Then we shall not have to refer to an index book, or to a card index 
whenever we wish to ascertain any of these facts ; and as the foremen or work- 
men are not provided with these useful accessories they will not have to annoy 
others, or to go to the drafting room to ask questions about it, as would fre- 
quently be the case if blueprints contained, as titles, only such marks as 
"24-A-5," meaning that it belonged to machine No. 24, could be found in 
drawer A, and that it was sheet No. 5, all of which is of very little use to the 
man in the shop who uses it, however sufficient it may be in the drafting room. 

Yet it is of use to have each machine distinguished by a symbol, or letter, 
and the particular tracing and blueprint by a number. These numbers 
begin with 1 for each machine, hence they do not usually run into more than 
two figures. They are a convenience to the draftsmen in finding them in the 
drawers, as well as of designating them briefly. This form of title is shown 
in Fig. 180. The plainest lettering should 
always be used, hence the gothic form for 
important letters and figures, and the 
draftsman's italic for the smaller ones, will 
be the most economical to make, the easiest 
to read, and consequently the best adapted 
to practical use both in the shop and in 
the drafting room. 

Many methods have been advocated 
and experimented upon to determine the 
best way to mount blueprints for use in the shop. One method is to have 
boards half an inch thick with cleats nailed to the ends, and not increasing 
the thickness of the boards. These boards are painted on both sides and 
have the blueprints laid upon them and held down by pine strips ■£$ x f inch, 
fastened with 8-ounce carpet tacks, for easy removal. This method renders 
the blueprints very convenient for the shop and preserves them well, as the 
strips prevent their defacement by other boards coming in contact with them. 
However, blueprints mounted in this manner occupy considerable space. 

Another method is to mount the blueprint on heavy strawboard or binders' 
board. In this form an extra sheet of equally strong paper should be pasted 
on the back of the strawboard to prevent warping. Blueprints mounted in 
this manner are quite convenient to handle in issuing, returning, and storing, 



12" ENGINE LATHE. 


GENERAL DRAWING OF 


HEADSTOCK. 


Scale, 3 '= 1 ft. Name of Company. 


Drawn by 
L.T.F. 
6-12*'04 


Traced 
by O.T. 
6-14-'04 


Checked 

by J.K.M. 

6-15-'04 


A 


2 


Fig. 180. — Title on Drawings. Usual 




size, 2 J 


X3 in. 







276 



MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 



and with even heavy strawboard they are light and convenient for the shop. 
The corners should be clipped off or rounded. 

Still another method is to mount the blueprint on sheet iron. This has 
been tried with blueprints of moderate size, but it would seem that these can 
not be very convenient to handle on account of their weight, and would be 
liable to injure each other if piled up, by defacing the lines and figures. The 
edges of the sheet iron will be rather harsh to the hands. If properly per- 
formed the method of mounting blueprints upon heavy strawboard will be 
found as good as any for sizes of 18 x 24 inches and 24 x 36 inches, while for 
small work the 9x12 inch cards as described above will be found very 
useful. 

Several systems are in vogue for indicating the different machines built, 
and these symbols are carried into the system of the drafting room for the 
purpose of identifying drawings. One of these methods is by distinguishing 
figures, another by letters, and more frequently by letters and figures com- 
bined, the one representing a class and the other indicating its place in that 
particular class. It will need no argument to prove that the more simple this 
symbol can be the easier it will be remembered, the less time it will take to 
represent it on drawings, and the less space and expense will be required to 
attach it to patterns. 

When the number of different machines to be built does not exceed thirty 
or forty the letters of the alphabet may be very conveniently used ; in the more 
frequent cases a single letter only being required. This will be readily seen 
from the scheme which follows, and is adaptable to a shop building machine 
tools in a moderate variety. 



m. 



in. 

in. 



A, 12 

B, 16 

C, 20 

D, 24-in 

E, 30-: 

F, 36- 

G, 45-in 
H, 60-in 
J, 24-in 
K, 30-in 

L, 36 

M, 48-in. 



Engine 

Engine 

Engine 

Engine 

Engine 

Engine 

Engine 

Engine 

Planer 

Planer 

Planer 

Planer 



Lathe 
Lathe 
Lathe 
Lathe 
Lathe 
Lathe 
Lathe 
Lathe 



N, 60-in. 

P, 16-in. 

Q, 24-in. 

R, 30-in. 

S, 40-in. 

T, 10-in. 

U, 16-in. 

V, 24-in. 

W, 10-in. 

Y, 1 5 -in. 

Z, 20-in. 



Planer 

Upright Drill 

Upright Drill 

Upright Drill 

Upright Drill 

Shaper 

Shaper 

Shaper 

Slotter 

Slotter 

Slotter 



The letters I, O, and X are omitted for the reason that the letter I is so 
near in appearance to the figure 1, and the letter O to the cipher, that they 
are likely to cause confusion. The letter X is omitted as it is used to indicate 
changes in a pattern, as will be presently described. Other machines may 



THE DRAFTING ROOM 277 

be indicated by two letters instead of one, thus: AA, 9-inch bench lathe; 

BB, 1 2 -inch hand lathe; CC, 20-inch special lathe; DD, 24-inch forming lathe. 
Or a 36-inch planer widened to 48-inch, instead of having its patterns and 
parts marked L, will have those made necessary by the change of width 
marked L-M, the last letter indicating 48 inches wide. In the same way a 36- 
inch lathe raised up to 45-inch swing may have the extra parts needed marked 
F-G. The hyphen is introduced to indicate that two machines are being 
considered in the designation. The letters of the alphabet having been 
exhausted in this manner, other combinations may be resorted to, as AB, 

BC, etc., omitting the hyphen, as only one machine is meant to be referred 
to. This system will be found to have many advantages, not the least of 
which will be the ease with which these symbols are committed to memory. 

In designing the parts of a machine the list is divided into sub-heads or 
groups of related parts. An engine lathe list will be divided into the bed, 
headstock, tailstock, carriage, rests, countershaft, etc., each of these headings 
including the principal piece mentioned, and all its related parts or appendages. 
In fixing the designation numbers to the various parts the bed would be 1, 
and the other parts following in regular order. When all the parts of this 
group are numbered a sufficient number of blank spaces are left for additions 
in this group. Then the next group is proceeded with in the same manner. 
The similar parts in several machines of the same class will receive like num- 
bers, the distinctive letter symbol of the machine designating the individual 
part, pattern, or drawing thereof. For instance, the headstock of a 20-inch 
lathe may be designated C40, while that of a 36-inch lathe would be F40, and 
so on. 

When a pattern or a part is altered the fact is indicated in red ink on the 
original drawing, and on the pattern a letter X is added to its former designa- 
tion. Thus, the headstock of a 20-inch lathe when altered becomes C40X, 
each successive alteration adding another letter X to its designating mark, or 
in case of several alterations, one X, followed by a figure indicating the alter- 
ation, may be used. Thus, for the fourth alteration the mark would be 
C40X4. The red ink on the drawing gives the date when the change was 1 
made. Parts may be numbered in groups with reference to the materials of 
which they are composed. For instance, numbers 1 to 499 may be assigned 
to cast iron parts; 500 to 599 to malleable iron parts; 600 to 699 to steel casting 
parts; 700 to 799 to brass parts, and so on for forgings of wrought iron and 
steel and for the parts machined directly from the bar stock, etc., since every 
part made or purchased should have its distinctive number in order to carry 
out not only the drafting room system but that of the other departments of 
the works. In all drawings the part number should appear in a small circle 
to attract attention and to distinguish it from the dimension figures. It 



-:- 



MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 




Fig. iSi. 



should be placed directly on the part where possible; otherwise at one side 
with an arrow. 

Various schemes have been advocated for storing- and filing drawings, 
tracings, and blueprints. It will be conceded, no doubt, that unmounted 
blueprints, drawings, and tracings should lie flat in drawers, and be so placed 
that the title at the lower right-hand corner may be readily accessible. The 

drawers should be constructed 
as shown in Fig;. iSi. with a 
strip A at the back. J inch 
thick and 3 inches wide, to 
keep the back edges of the 
sheets in place and to prevent 
injur}-. There should be a 
separate drawer for the draw- 
ings of each machine, whose 
name and distinctive letter 
should be plainly marked on its front. A similar drawer for each machine 
holds the tracings, the two being kept in separate cases of drawers. For 
conveniently rinding and replacing sheets the best method yet suggested seems 
to be that of separating them into groups of ten by interposing strawboard, 
properly indexed, as shown in Fig. 
1S2. These sheets perform the 
double office of ready reference to the 
sheet wanted, and in the case of tra- 
cings they serve to keep them flat. 
The top sheet of strawboard bears the 
machine name and letter. This sheet 
should be an inch larger all around 
than the drawing; or tracing, while the 
indexed sheets should be still an inch 
wider on the ri^ht-hand side so as to 
admit of ready indexing with plain 



figures. 



12' ENGINE LATHE. 



:z 



1: 



3: 



4C 



= : 



Blueprints mounted on straw- 
board may be laid flat in drawers, or FlG - " Iadex Cards for D ™ 
be stored on edge, in a case, as shown in Fig. 183. On the shelf beneath 
each compartment is marked the letter and name of the machine. 

Indexing;, films:, issuing:, and recovering; drawings, tracings, and blue- 
prints is undoubtedly best handled by the card system. As each machine is 
designated by a letter, the hrst card, pink in color, will bear on its tab the 
letter of the machine. As the parts of the machine are divided into groups 



THE DRAFTING ROOM 



2 79 



of related parts, the first card of the group will bear on its tab the name of 
the group, usually taken from its most important part. For instance, in an 
engine lathe the groups will be the bed, headstock, tailstock, etc. One of the 




Fig. 183. — Case for Storing Mounted Blue Prints. 

group index cards is shown in Fig. 184, and a machine index card in Fig. 185. 
The arrangement of these cards and of the others in the different groups is 
shown in Fig. 186. The group index cards are white. By this arrangement 
it is very easy to find any particular card wanted. The cards relating to one 
machine may be divided from 



J HEAD \_ 



12 ENGINE LATHE. 



those of another by a loose wooden 
partition a quarter of an inch thick 
if desired. It is considered by 
some draftsmen as a convenience 
rather than a necessity. 

When blue or brown prints 
are wanted the chief will give the 
blue printer an order card of the 
form shown in Fig. 187. If for 
blueprints he will use a blue card, 
and for brown prints a brown card. 
If for brown print negatives he will add the word " negatives 



A 2 



GENERAL DRAWING OF HEADSTOOK. 

Drawn, by 

Traced, by 

Checked, by 

Alterations, etc. 



Fig. 184. — Group Index Card, size, 3x5m. 
Color, White. 



to the title 



line on the card. This card, properly dated, will be turned in to the chief 
with the prints when they are completed. 

When blueprints are to be mounted they are issued by the chief, and 
when completed a card will be made for each of them, whether duplicates or 
not, like that shown in Fig. 188, which is light blue. These cards will be 
arranged the same as those for drawings and tracings, with tabs for the groups 



280 



MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 



of parts. The cards separating those of different machines will be red, and 
of the form shown in Fig. 189. 

When blueprints are issued the entry will be made on the cards showing 



12 ENGINE LATHE. 



Designed by , 

Design Commenoed, Completed,. 

Alterations, etc 



Fig. 185. — Machine Index Card, size, 3x5m. 
Color, Pink. 



the date of issue and to what department they went. When they are returned 
the date will be stamped in the proper space. When the card is filled up a 




Fig. 186. — Locating Index Cards in the Drawer. 

new one takes its place. The chief draftsman, receiving a copy of all orders 
for work sent into the shops, will make his arrangements for blueprints in ample 



ORDER FOR PRINTS. 


Date Ordered. 


No. Wanted. 


Letter and No. 


Date Made. 



























































Fig. 187. — Order for Prints. Cards, 3 x 5 in. Color, 
Light Blue for Blue Prints ; Brown for Brown Prints. 

time to meet -requirements. Drawings and tracings are not supposed to be 
sent into the shops, and the making of temporary sketches of any part in the 



THE DRAFTING ROOM 



281 



effort to hurry the work along should be discouraged, as mistakes and mis- 
understandings are liable to occur, while by always adhering to the regular 
system we shall insure the prompt fixing of responsibility for errors, and the 
smooth running of the routine affairs of the department. 





/ HEAD \ 








12" ENGINE LATHE. 

GENERAL DRAWING OF HEADSTOCK. 


Dep't. 
No. 


Issued. 


Returned. 


Dep't. 
No. 


Issued. 


Returned. 











































































Fig. 188. — Blue Print Record Card, sizes, 3 x 5 in. 
Color, Light Blue. 

In fact the effort to find " short cuts" in transacting the business of the 
establishment, while in a certain sense commendable, should only be taken 
up when it is amply demonstrated that such a course can be safely followed. 
It is too often the case that a slight saving in one direction may result in a 
waste of time in another. It will be well to consider the work of the Drafting 



12 ENGINE LATHE. 



Remarks, 



Fig. 189. — Blue Print Index Card, size, 3x5m. 
Color, Red. 

Room from rather a conservative standpoint in these respects, as a slight error 
here is liable to lead to much trouble all the way through the shops. Hence 
the work here should be done with deliberate care and thoroughness to insure 
the success, not only of this department, but of those which follow it in the 
regular routine of manufacturing. 



CHAPTER XXIX 

THZ TOOL AND STOCK ROOM 

The lack of information in reference to it. Only special portions of the subject heretofore 
taken up. Disconnected parts of systems. The need of a complete system. The tool 
room. Here it should be treated in reference to other departments. Its two sections, 
the tool-making and the tool-keeping rooms. Equipment of the first section. General 
plans of the room. Auxiliary tool-distributing rooms. The tool room foreman. Ques- 
tion of ordering tools. Relation of the tool room to the general shop routine. Tune 
keeping. The time card. Foreman's orders. Stock and material accounts. Material 
and cost card. Work on the regular product. Cost keeping of this work. The tool 
room design. Building partitions. Tool-keeping room. General arrangement. 
Shelving. The double check system of issuing and recovering tools. The check board. 
Storing and issuing files. Tracing the ::■: If C-r~tri. r^es. O^-tri:::." ::" :he ihezk 
board. Errand boys. Permanent issue of tools. Standard sets oi tools System ::' 
caring for jigs and fixtures. Card system for locating, issuing, and recovering them. 
Stock room arrangement. Shelves, drawers, boxes, etc Location of different articles. 
Special equipment for tool and stockrooms. Stockroom supplies. Account!:: z sys- 
tem. Card system. Stock ledger cards. Consumable supplies. Finished parts. 
Storeroom. 



The studious mechanic, ever on the alert for new and up-to-date infor- 
mation relating to the equipment, arrangement, organization, and management 
of the modern machine shop or manufacturing plant, must have noticed, and 
with some surprise, the lack of discussion in the technical publications on the 
subject of the tool room, as well as the stock and storerooms, that in so many 
shops are intimately connected with all shop routine. Such discussions is 
we have had heretofore have usually been on particular features, such as tool 
racks, tool trays, tool checks, steel racks, drawer racks, tool check systems. 
and so on, but in none of them have we been favored with a complete system 
for the management of the tool room and the stock room. 

Again, we find many descriptions and illustrations of tools, jigs, and 
fixtures, always interesting and valuable, often indispensable for their par- 
ticular sphere of usefulness in the shop, but seldom do we see plans or descrip- 
tions of how or where to keep them in the best condition and ready for use. 
It is no doubt true that in many shops these expensive accessories are often 
left on benches or under them, or on wall shelves in the rooms where they are 
used, subject to dirt, dust, rust, and the possibility of accidental injury. 

282 






THE TOOL AND STOCK ROOM 283 

We find many disconnected parts of systems for use in the stock or store- 
room; how stock shall be ordered; how it shall be accounted for when it is 
received; how it shall be issued; how it shall be followed up to know what is 
on hand, what needed, etc., but never a complete system of management 
giving the details from the time stock is wanted until it is finally expended 
and accounted for. 

It is proposed, in this article, to take up these matters in regular order, 
and to describe and illustrate, as fully as is here possible, the regular routine 
from the inception of a requirement until its final realization. 

First to be considered is the tool room. This should be located apart 
from the general machine shop, as a too intimate connection does not seem 
desirable in practice, while it is self-evident that it should be convenient to 
the superintendent's office, drafting room, and pattern shop, and that it should 
be well lighted, comfortably warmed and ventilated. This room is properly 
divided into two sections, the first being the room where tools are made and 
kept in proper repair, and the second, the room where they are stored, repaired, 
issued to the machine shop as required, and received from the shop when no 
longer needed there. 

The second section may consist of two parts, in one of which lathe and 
planer tools, milling cutters, drills, taps, reamers, files, jigs, fixtures, gages, 
and similar articles are kept, while the other part may contain the articles of 
stock and consumable supplies usually found in the ordinary stock room, such 
as machine, cap, and set screws, oil cups, metals, the smaller bar and sheet 
stock, bolts, rivets, nut blanks, oil, waste, emery, emery cloth, etc. It will be 
much more convenient in many ways to keep these two classes separate for 
storage purposes as well as for accounting and issuing. 

It is assumed that the machinist portion of the tool department, or the 
tool-making room is equipped with modern machine tools sufficient in number, 
variety, and efficiency to turn out all the tools, jigs, fixtures, gages, etc., that 
may be needed. This equipment may consist of a 24 in. x 5 ft. planer, a 
universal milling machine, an index milling machine, a 10-in. shaper, a sen- 
sitive drill, a 25-in. upright drill, two 18 in. x 8 ft. tool room lathes, one 
each 24 in. x 10 ft., 20 in. x 10 ft., 16 in. x 6 ft., engine lathes, a 12 in. x 6 ft. 
speed lathe, a 6 in. x 18 in. surface grinder, a 4 in. x 30 in. grinder for cylin- 
drical work, a disc grinder, three tool grinders, and two twist drill grinders. 
Also, the necessary large and small surface plates, straight edges, and similar 
tools and accessories that may be necessary for the production of good tool 
work. 

It is also assumed that adjoining this room is the room wherein tools, 
jigs, gages, fixtures, files, etc., used in the shop are kept, and in connection 
with these, in the same room, or one opening from it, is kept such stock as 



284 



MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 



machine, cap, and set screws, round, square, and hexagon tool and machine 
steel, brass, copper, and steel wire, sheet brass, copper, steel, and fiber, rough 
bolts, nut blanks, washers, and all similar articles of stock usually found in 
the machine shop storeroom, as well as belting, oil, waste, and similar consum- 
able supplirs. 

For convenience of administration all these may be under the charge of 
the tool room foreman, while the special work of caring for, issuing, and 
r ;- : riving tools and the issuing of stock may be taken care of by a tool and 
stockkeeper and a young man, and perhaps a boy. There should always be 
two persons conversant with the location of ever}' item of tools and stock in 
these rooms, so that the regular work may not be impeded in case of the illness 
or unavoidable absence of the man in charge. 

The engraving, Fig. 190, presents a plan of these rooms, laid out in the 




Fig. 190. — Plan of a Tool Department. 

most convenient manner, showing the location of the machine tools in the 
tool-making room and the various sections of shelving, racks, bins, counters, 
benches, etc., in the tool storeroom and the stock room, all designed and 
arranged with a view to efficiency and economy of operation, as well as the 
economical use of the floor space. This design is a variation of the one shown 
in Chapter XYIII and is designed as a secondary or alternate study to that 
one. It will be found useful to those about to organize the tool and stock 
rooms of a machine shop or factory in a practical and economical manner, 
and at the same time not sacrifice the important factor of efficiency. 

In addition to this general tool room there may be other distributing 



THE TOOL AND STOCK ROOM 285 

points, as the offices of the several foremen, or auxiliary tool rooms at remote 
points on the ground floor, or on other floors in case the shop is constructed 
with several floors. At these points, lathe and planer tools, twist drills, and 
similar tools may be had by the workmen without sending to the general tool 
room for them. If this is the case the regular routine of issue by the general 
tool room will be preserved as though the issues were made directly from it. 
To carry tools to these auxiliary tool rooms a device similar to the cash or 
bundle carriers in department stores should be used, while for carrying tools 
to and from other floors a conveyor consisting of two chains running over 
pulleys at the upper and lower floors, and provided with pivoted boxes, located 
between them, is very economical and efficient, and in successful use in some 
of the largest shops and factories. 

The foreman of the tool room is supposed to have a small office, that he 
may have a proper place for keeping the records of the work of the department, 
as well as a private room for convenience in making such sketches, plain 
drawings, or details as he may find necessary in carrying out the plans for 
tool making, these not being always worked out in sufficient detail by the 
drafting room force, or such as he may wish to devise himself for special 
work, and to develop as the necessities for them may arise. 

On general principles all drawings are supposed to be made in the draft- 
ing room, and by the regular draftsmen, yet there are times when the initiative 
in these matters may, with proper authority, be taken by the foremen of the 
tool room and the experimental room. In such cases the regular finished 
drawings of record should be made in the drafting room according to the 
regular rules of that department. In fact, it should be a rule habitually 
enforced in the whole establishment, that except for urgent reasons, or special 
orders from competent authority, the regular routine for transacting business 
should be insisted upon, and that "short cuts to avoid red tape" should be 
frowned upon and discountenanced. 

When in the regular course of shop work, tools, jigs, fixtures, gages, 
etc., are required, the superintendent will issue a written order, of which he 
retains in his order book a carbon copy. These orders will be serially num- 
bered, in duplicate (for general work in the shop in triplicate), and this indi- 
vidual order number will designate this particular work all the way through 
such departments as do any work upon it. 

As the plan of organization I have advocated provides for two assistant 
superintendents, the first having under his jurisdiction the drafting room, 
pattern shop, tool room, experimental room, stock room, power house, iron 
foundry, forge shop, carpenter shop, paint shop, shipping room, and yard 
gang, while the second assistant superintendent has charge of the strictly 
manufacturing departments, an order for tools will go to the first assistant, 



286 



MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 



who in turn will write in a carbon copy book a similar order for the foremen 
concerned in the work, furnishing a copy to the chief draftsman and to the 
foremen of the tool room, pattern shop, foundry, and forge shop, for the neces- 
sary drawings, patterns, castings, and forgings, respectively, and see that they 
are srotten out and furnished to the tool room foreman. 

When the drawings are complete the chief draftsman will notify the first 
assistant, who, if he desires the job to go on at once, will direct him to send 
the proper drawings to the pattern shop and forge shop. In making these 
drawings, and in all subsequent work, the value of time and material will be 
charged on a material and a cost card of the form shown in Figs. 191 and 192. 



NAME OF COMPANY. 

MATERIAL AND COST CARD. 

ORDER NO. . DATE, _ 








1 *- 
1 

STOCK 2 COST 
5 


STOCK 


Z 


- 
Z 


----- 


C.I. CASTINGS 












MAL. " 










STEE^ 












BRASS 












nwrnirr •• 










BABBITT 










MEM. STEEL 












CAST . . 












TOOL n 












WT. IRON 


















































































PATTERN LUMBER 
















BOX 


























i 1 1 















NAME OF COMPANY. 

TIME ACCOUNT. 

ORDER NO. .-COMPLETED 


DEPARTMENT 


AMT. 


DEPARTMENT AMT. 



















































1 



Fig. 102. — The Time Account (on the back 
of the Material and Cost Card) . 



Fig. 191. — Size, 5 x 7 in. Sis Ply Cardboard. 
Color, Light Red. 

The time account kept by the workmen is on a job time card which, in 
addition to the regular day time card, is registered in a recording time clock, 
a separate card being used for each job, and the aggregate amount of time so 
registered equaling the amount shown by the day time card. One of these 
cards is shown in Fig. 193, which is adaptable to the International 
card recorder time clock. At the end of the week these cards go to the office, 
the time clerk receiving the day time cards, and the cost clerk the job time 

cards. 

The foreman of the tool room will make written orders in a carbon 
copying book to the different men doing the machine work in substantially 



THE TOOL AND STOCK ROOM 



287 



the form shown in Fig. 194, adding a sketch whenever the drawings do not 
fully show what is required, or that some special method is necessary, or 
when the sketch will render his meaning more certain than written words. 
A fairly good sketch with the necessary dimensions can scarcely ever be made 
to mean what was not intended. 
Sometimes writing is rather weak in 
this respect, particularly if it has been 
carelessly done. This order is re- 
tained by the workman as his authority 
for doing the work, and will often be 
found useful in settling disputed ques- 
tions arising where verbal orders were 
depended upon. 

Whenever stock or material is re- 
quired from the stock room, or from 
any other department, it will be 
drawn on a "Material" requisition 
of the form shown in Fig. 195. This 
requisition is written in duplicate, 
one part being retained by the fore- 
man of the department furnishing the 
material, and the other part returned, 
with the material, with the costs 
entered upon it. Purchased parts re- 
quire a similar requisition, of yellow 
paper, w T ith the printed matter 
changed to suit its use. All stock 
and material drawn or received from whatever source will be entered on the 
material and cost card, so as to furnish an accurate account of all shop ex- 
penditures on the job as it passes through its various stages. 

Any department other than the tool room doing any work on tools will 
send with the work their own material and cost card when the job is turned 
in to the tool room. These cards will be sent, together with the tool room 
card, to the cost clerk when the job is completed. The time of the foreman 
of the tool room will be charged against any order on which he may be nearly 
exclusively engaged, but this will seldom occur, and it will be safer as to 
general results to make his salary one of the so-called non-productive charges, 
the same as that of the other foremen, or the assistant superintendents. The 
same may be said of the errand boy who will be found necessary in this de- 
partment. By the use of these blanks and the time card system there will by 
a minimum of clerical work to be done, and this may be easily handled be 



w 


EEK ENDIN 


ft 


N< 






NAME 






> 
< 
O 


FORENOON 


AFTERNOON 


OVERTIME 




IN 


OUT 


IN 


OUT 


IN 


OUT 


MON. 
















TUE. 
















WED. 
















THU. 
















FRI. 
















SAT. 
















SUN. 
















TOTAL TIME HOURS 


RA 


TE 




TOTAL WAGES FOR WEEK 



Fig. 193. — The Time Card, size, 3§ x 5^ in. 
Straw Colored Cardboard. 



288 



MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 



the foreman who will thus keep in closer touch with the routine work, distri- 
bution of time, and the cost of the work turned out. 

Occasionally the tool room does work upon the regular product of the 



>.->•'£ :- ::'->--■. •. 



FOREMAN'S ORDER. TOOL DEPT. 






- JL.O.JU, 



WORKMAN'S 

-, _ v r l - 7 H 



• / y 



*7*/f 




- -= •••: = • 'Vi'.-A ._ =r-i i. -- : ; = ;£ = . 



r IG. 194. — Foreman's Order, size, 4 x 6 in. 
Light Blue. 



Color, 






■ - •■ -- : : ::"=i>.r t 



V-"E- :_3 



-zi. -e: -:- 



establishment. There may be some machines in the tool room equipment 
which are better adapted for certain work than those in use in the manufac- 
turing departments, or it may be that there is less tool making than usual, 

and some work is put into this 
department for the purpose of 
keeping the force engaged 
rather than to temporarily 
transfer some of the men 
elsewhere. When such work 
is done in the tool room it will 





1 



\'A 



-.-■ e-e: -:- 



:-;e- : 



••'--£- -. 



::s~ ;-'••:.'•- 



be handled exactly as it would 
be in one of the manufactur- 
ing departments, and be sub- 
ject to the same rules and 
routine, as well as under the 
supervision of the second 

assistant superintendent, who is in charge of the manufacturing operations in 

general. 

The enclosing partition of the tool department should not be wholly of 

boards, as this will very much impede the light. Neither is it necessary that 



Fig. 195. — Requisition for Stock and Materials, size, 
8 J x 11 in. Color, Light Green. 



THE TOOL AND STOCK ROOM 289 

it should be entirely of wire netting. A much better plan will be to build it 
of §-inch matched sheathing, set vertically, and to a height of 42 inches, being 
finished with a strip covering the top ends of the boards and another at the 
bottom to cover the floor joint. Above this woodwork should be four feet of 
wire screen, which may be tacked to 2 x 3 inch uprights, and finished at the 
top with a cap and molding. If something more expensive is desired, gas 
pipe uprights may support an ornamented iron rail at the top, and a wire 
screen of lozenge-shaped mesh may be used instead of that of square or hex- 
agonal mesh. This screen need not be finer than i-inch mesh, and the 
larger the mesh the less it will impede the passage of light. 

The tool storeroom, or tool keeping room, shown in the plan, Fig. 190, 
is fitted up with a bench on two sides and a semicircular counter which, in 
conjunction with the stock room, furnishes a very convenient arrangement for 
receiving and issuing tools and stock. This counter may be closed with a 
wire screen in front, having in it an opening for each room through which 
articles may be passed. The counter should be 42 inches high and the benches 
30 inches. A door may open beneath the counter and a portion of the counter 
top be hinged to turn out of the way to admit large packages of stock, as a 
bale of waste, a barrel of oil, etc. This opening need not be over 30 inches 
wide. The remaining space beneath the counter may be fitted with shelves 
for holding articles frequently called for, and so placed as to be in convenient 
reach. 

The sections of shelving are made 30 inches wide at the bottom and 
20 inches wide at the top. They are shown as divided in the center, providing 
two series of shelves from 10 to 15 inches wide. Should wider shelves be 
desired for some special articles this central division may be omitted. At the 
partition between this room and the stock room proper is a series of shelves 
20 inches wide. The sections of shelves may be 8 to 10 feet high according 
to the quantity of tools to be stored. If much above ordinary reach there 
should be sliding step ladders at each passage. A portion of the front end 
of each section is arranged with cross shelves, of a width to suit the tools 
more frequently used, so as to bring them in convenient reach of the tool 
keeper. Upon the bench at the right of the room and upon one or two strong 
shelves beneath it may be stored large fixtures too heavy to be conveniently 
kept on the section shelves. 

The tool check board shown in Fig. 196 may be located at A. At B is 
an opening above a broad shelf, where dulled tools, drills, etc., may be passed 
through to the tool grinders in the tool making room, and returned by the 
same way when ground, more conveniently than to carry them around by the 
door. Long arbors may be placed on end at the back ends of the passages, 
proper racks being provided for them. 



290 



MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 



Files should be kept in a case of pigeon holes of suitable dimensions, the 
smaller ones at the top, the coarser cuts at the left, and similar shapes of the 
different sizes under each other. A good arrangement is this; (reading from 
left to right) : First shelf, flat bastard, flat second cut, flat smooth, fine mill, 
hand smooth, square bastard, square second cut, square smooth; for the next 
shelf, half round bastard, half round second cut, half round smooth, coarse 
mill, taper (triangular), round bastard, round second cut, round smooth. 
Thus two horizontal rows of eight pigeon holes each are required for each 
size from six-inch up. With the exception of special shapes, one row of eight 
pigeon holes will be sufficient for each of the three, four, and five inch sizes. 

By the above arrangement the tool keeper will soon memorize the positions 
of each size and shape so as to handle them rapidly. There should be large 
spaces at the bottom for surplus stock, this space being more difficult to reach 




Fig. 196.— The Tool Check Board. 



in the ordinary issue of files and quite as good for keeping surplus stock. 
The location of this case is at C, so as to be in convenient reach of the tool 

keeper. 

There seems to be a great diversity of opinion as to the best system for 
issuing and receiving the ordinary tools kept in the tool storeroom, such as 
drills, taps, tap wrenches, reamers, etc. If we study the conditions of the case 
a little we will, no doubt, arrive at several conclusions that will help to solve 

the problem. 

Some of these conclusions may be briefly stated as follows: The tools 
wanted should be delivered with the least possible delay. Therefore they 
should be so arranged that no time is lost in looking for them. Their location 
in the shop should be known whenever they are not in the tool room. Every 
man having tools from the tool room should be held responsible, not only for 



THE TOOL AND STOCK ROOM 291 

the safe return, but for the condition of the tools while in his hands. Therefore 
the tools, as they are brought in, or as soon thereafter as possible, should be 
examined as to their condition, before the transaction is completed by the 
replacing of the tool check on the board. The time of the workman is too 
valuable to be spent in going after tools and returning them, or in grinding 
them. Therefore they should be delivered and returned by errand boys. 
These conclusions having been arrived at we may arrange a system in accord- 
ance with them. 

The plan of using brass checks in issuing tools for indicating their location 
is most simple, and by the use of duplicate checks it can be made most efficient, 
giving at any time the location of any particular tool and also the number of 
tools in the possession of each and every man. For this purpose a board 
containing a list of names of all the men to whom tools are to be issued is 
provided, a small section of which is shown in Fig. 196. Beneath each name, 
which is printed or written on slips of cardboard, and tacked to the board with 
small brass pins, are tw T o pins or hooks capable of holding a dozen brass checks. 
Two forms of checks are used. Circular ones about f-inch diameter with the 
individual number of the man stamped with J-inch figures. Another set of 
checks are ^ x i\ inch, also with the man's number stamped upon them. 
The same numbers will also be stamped under the check pins on the board. 

Twelve of these circular checks are given to each man and twelve of the 
rectangular checks are hung on the left-hand check pin beneath his name. 
When he sends for a tool he sends one of his circular checks. This is hung 
on the right-hand pin under his name and one of the rectangular checks is 
put in place of the tool in the tool rack or on the shelf. If he sends for another 
tool the circular check which he sends is added to the first one. Therefore 
the location of the tool is shown by the presence of the rectangular check in 
the tool rack, while the number of circular checks under his name shows how 
many tools he has out. 

At the end of the week all tools are called in and the workmen's checks 
returned for the next week's routine. This is done so that if any mistakes 
have been made during the week they may be rectified. By this method we 
have only to glance at the board to see how many tools each and every man 
has in his possession, and if any particular tool is absent, the check in its 
place shows at once who has it. 

By this system there are no cards to change, no books to keep, or written 
entries of any kind to make in the process of issuing and receiving tools, and 
as the work forms a considerable majority of the tool keeper's work, the saving 
of time over any system requiring written entries is about one half. Besides 
this, the soiled fingers of the tool keeper soon deface cards and books and 
should be avoided when possible. 



292 



MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 



There should be a sufficient number of errand boys at different points in 
the shop to quickly answer all calls for tools and to return them to the tool 
room promptly. Their wages will be small in comparison with the time that 
would be lost by the men in doing similar duty. With lathe and planer tools, 
etc., each operator should always have a spare tool at his machine in good 
condition for use. He may then take out a dull tool and send it to. the tool 
room where it will be exchanged for a sharp one, and have no delay but in 
changing tools in his machine. 

The original sharp tools only are charged to him at the tool room. These 
charges, as well as similar ones for tools used continually, are made upon 
cards containing the man's name and number at the top, following which is a 
list of tools in his possession for his regular work, and which he may retain 
for months, the dulled, worn, defective, or broken ones being replaced from 
day to day. The form of this card is shown in Fig. 197. 



PERMANENT ISSUE OF TOOLS. 

|«4MP ^O 




TOOLS. ISSUED. 


RETURNED. 































Fig. 157. — Permanent Issue Tool Card, size, 3 x 5 in. 
Color, White. 

In the regular course of manufacturing work there are certain sets of 
tools, jigs, gages, fixtures, etc., required at one time. For instance, where 
a lot of holes are to be drilled and tapped there will be required a tap drill, a 
set of three taps, and a tap wrench. Or, where a certain machine part is to 
be milled there will be needed one or more milling fixtures with the necessary 
milling cutters. Or, a part to be drilled will require a drill jig and drills of 
the various sizes to go with it. These sets of tools and fixtures should be kept 
in separate boxes provided with a hinged cover, lock, and key. The contents 
of the boxes are plainly marked on the outside, as, for instance, "Milling, 
Part D-135," "Drilling, Part P-24," "Drill and Tap, f," etc. 

In arranging these boxes on the shelves they should be grouped according 
to their purposes, or the machines to which they pertain. For instance, those 
for drilling and tapping, and the shelf so marked on its edge. Sets of jigs, 
gages, and fixtures should be grouped in a section of shelving according to 
the machines to which they belong, then grouped according to the particular 



THE TOOL AND STOCK ROOM 293 

part to which they pertain. These sets of tools are issued only on a written 
order from the foreman of the department where they are to be used. They 
are accounted for by the card system in the following maimer: There is a 
separate card for each set of tools. These are arranged in one or more drawers 
marked "Tools in," the guide cards showing the machines to which they refer, 
or, if general in character, the kind of tools, as drilling and tapping, drilling 
and reaming, etc. 

When a set of tools is issued the card representing them is removed from 
its accustomed place and filed in another drawer marked " Tools out," the 
guide cards in which will indicate the department to which the set of tools 
were sent. When the set of tools is returned the card is restored to its accus- 
tomed place. Thus there is no writing necessary, the simple changing of a 
card answering all purposes of a book and being much more convenient for 
reference. Each card contains a list of all tools or pieces that are contained 
in the set. 

At the left in Fig. 190 is shown the plan of the stock room, access to which 
for the purpose of drawing stock and supplies is by way of the area at the left, 
in front of the semicircular counter. This room is arranged in a similar 
manner to the tool keeping room, with sections of shelving between which are 
passages, or alcoves, for conveniently reaching any part of them. These 
shelves are arranged for the reception of boxes, drawers, sheet iron trays, or 
whatever form of receptacle may be needed for the particular form of small 
or large stock to be kept. 

Up to a height of 42 inches these shelves may be formed as bins for 
holding the larger sizes of round and hexagonal head cap screws, set screws, 
washers, rivets, nut blanks, and similar stock. The smaller screws, as round 
and flat head machine screws, cap screws, set screws, etc., may be kept in 
trays or boxes, or left in the original packages on the shelves. Small stock, 
such as oil cups, brass cocks, gas fittings, etc., should be kept in trays or 
boxes, on the shelves. Bar stock, such as drill rods, square tool steel, round 
and square cold drawn machine steel, and similar stock, should be kept in deep 
pigeon holes, which take in nearly the whole length, and is provided for at D. 

Sheet steel, brass, copper, and fiber should stand on edge, in a case pro- 
vided with vertical partitions two inches apart, and may commence near the 
floor and consist of three or more sections, one above the other. These are 
located at E, E. Lubricating oils are kept in vertical cans holding a barrel 
each, and set in drip pans on the bench at F. Belting should be kept in the 
rolls, set on edge between upright partitions arranged under the bench at G, 
this location being selected for convenience in stretching out a piece of belting 
down the passage to the rear, in measuring it to the required length by brass- 
headed nails driven into the floor at proper intervals. 



2Q4 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

Waste, or whatever substitute is used in lieu of it, is kept under the bench 
at H. Stock issued by weight will be weighed on a proper scale located on 
the counter at J. Brass, steel, and copper wire in coils may be hung on brackets 
or pins over the shelves at the left side of the room. Small coils of wire, as 
of music wire for springs, should be kept in drawers or boxes on the shelves. 
In all cases the stock keeper will so locate his stock that the kinds most fre- 
quently called for will be the most convenient to reach, so far as it is possible 
to do so. 

The construction herein described is of wood, tor reasons of economy, as 
it can be built by the carpenters employed about the plant. It is not by any 
means the best construction, however, and several new and improved forms 
are in use that offer important advantages in several ways. One of these is 
a skeleton rack formed of uprights composed of thin iron castings set at any 
desired distance apart to accommodate sheet metal drawers which rest on 
horizontal ribs cast on the uprights, which are held together by rods and 
sections of pipe to act as distance pieces. 

By this system the sections may be made of any length, and to suit drawers 
of any width. These sections are double and accommodate two series of 
drawers, their backs coming together. Only one pattern is necessary for 
these supports, the projecting ribs forming the drawer supports being stopped 
off in the outsides of the uprights at each end of the sections. If drawers of 
twice the depth of those usually used are desired, each alternate rib may be 
stopped off for that purpose. 

Another method is to build up the sections of angle iron or steel instead 
of cast iron uprights, riveting on angle strips to act as drawer supports. In 
this case, too, the drawers are made of sheet steel. The sections are made as 
in the former case for two series of drawers, their backs coming together. 
Double depth drawers may be arranged for when the supporting strips are 
riveted on. 

Both of these methods afford a considerable protection to their contents 
against fire, while their construction is such as to render them very serviceable 
and lasting. 

Still another plan is to have the sections built of wood with the shelves 
inclined to the front about twenty degrees and their front edges provided with 
a strip one inch high. Upon these shelves is a series of sheet iron pans from 
2 to 4 inches deep and of suitable length and width. Ordinary baking pans 
may be used for this purpose. There may be upright dividing partitions 
between the pans, or not, as may be desired. They are not really necessary 
and to use them adds 50 per cent at least to the cost of the sections over 
what it would be if they were omitted. The shelves are inclined for conven- 
ience in seeing the articles contained in them. 



THE TOOL AND STOCK ROOM 



295 



The method of keeping the stock room supplied with the articles necessary 
to issue, and the manner of issuing and accounting for them will next be con- 
sidered. It is the duty of the stock keeper to see that he always has a sufficient 
quantity of all kinds and sizes of stock to meet the probable demands that 
will be made upon him. When more of certain kinds is wanted he will make 
a requisition on the purchasing clerk upon a duplicate form shown in Fig. 198, 



NAME. OF COMPANY. 

STOCK AND SUPPLY REQUISITION. 

NO. flATF 


NAME 

STOCK/ 

run. \ 








AMOUNT 


ARTICLES 


COST 


AMOUNT 





- 













Fig. 198.— Stock and Supply Requisition, size, 5^ x 8£ in. 
Color, Pink. 

sending him the first half and retaining the other part as evidence of what he 
has called for. When the stock is received he will check off the articles on 
this blank, and wait for the invoice, which the purchasing clerk will send 
him. This he will check from his portion of his requisition, upon which he 
will enter the costs. 





STOCK 


LEDGER CARD 




MAX. 


ARTICI F 


MIN. 




RECEIVED 


ISSUED 


DATE 


AMOUNT 


D«TE 


AMOUNT 


DATE 


AMOUNT 


DATE | AMOUNT 


TOTAL 


FORWARD 






































































































































































































TfVTAI 


FORWAR 


}ED 


TOTAI 











Fig. 199. — Stock Ledger Card, size, 4 x 6 in. Color, White. 

In order to keep a correct account of all stocks received and issued; to 
know when a sufficient quantity of each article is on hand for issue; when to 
make requisition for more; and to be able to ascertain quickly at any time 
the amount of any one article on hand, the stock ledger card shown in Fig. 199 



296 



MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 



is used. There will be a separate card for each kind and size of stock. All 
stock will be classified and proper guide cards will readily show the location 
of each class of stock cards. These classes will be sub-divided when necessary, 
the class guide cards and the sub-class guide cards being of different colors. 
These sub-classes may be advantageously again divided in some instances. 
For instance: Class, cap screws; sub-classes, round and hexagonal heads; in 
each of these sub-classes, soft and case-hardened. Nut blanks, square and 
hexagonal. Sheet steel, machine steel, spring steel, and tool steel. Sheet 
brass, hard and soft, etc. 

When stock is received it will be entered on the proper card, giving the 
date of its receipt. As quantities are issued the date and amount is entered 
at each issue, the total carried out on the horizontal line, and at any time 
added vertically and subtracted from the total amount received will show the 
balance on hand. When this card is filled up the amount on hand is ascer- 
tained and carried on to another card against the word "forward," and future 
operations entered as before. 




Fig. 200. — Requisition for Consumable Supplies, size, 
52 x 8J in. Color, Manila. 

In order to prevent an unnecessary amount of any one stock, or of allowing 
the amount to get below a safe minimum, the stock keeper will watch the con- 
dition of his stock, note the amount issued within a certain time, and soon be 
able to fix maximum and minimum limits, within which the stock of each 
particular article is to be kept. These amounts he will enter on the upper 
right-hand corner of the proper card. Should his first estimate in this respect 
not prove correct he may change it on subsequent cards. 

By careful attention to this point he may save much unnecessary outlay 
for stock kept on the shelves, and should any changes occur he will have less 
old stock to work off. Once every three months the stock on hand may be 
inventoried as a check on the card account. If found substantially correct 
these periods may be lengthened to six months. 



THE TOOL AND STOCK ROOM 297 

All consumable supplies issued will be upon requisitions of the form 
shown in Fig. 200. These will always be signed by a foreman, or other 
authority. One part of this blank will be retained by the stock keeper, and 
the other part, with the costs entered upon it, returned with the supplies. 

Still another division of the store or stock room may be a storeroom for 
small finished parts purchased from outside manufacturers. The general 
system of receiving them and accounting to the purchasing clerk, caring for 
them and issuing them upon proper requisitions, is the same as in accounting 
for stock and supplies. 



CHAPTER XXX 

PATTERN SHOP SYSTEM 

A field for a good system of management. The poorly created shop. Its proper location 
and importance. Organizing the working force. Various kinds of labor necessary. 
Classifying the work. Qualifications of a skilled pattern maker. Selection of pattern 
lumber. A lumber drying room. Storing pattern lumber. The kind of lumber for 
patterns. How the lumber should be cut from the log. Economical use of pattern 
lumber. Caring for short lengths of pattern lumber. Working up scraps. Discrimi- 
nation in the use of lumber. Fillets and dowels. System of- marking and testing 
patterns. Making pattern letters and figures. The proper style of letter. Applying 
them to the pattern. Case for storing pattern letters. Care of wood fillets. The 
pattern maker's cabinet. Keeping wire nails, screws, etc. A color system for varnishing 
patterns. The pattern loft. Handling patterns. Overhead trolley tracks and trolley 
hoists. System of storing patterns. Pattern records. Card system for recording, 
issuing, and recovering patterns. Handling the card system. Time and cost keeping. 
Material and cost card. A complete system. Methodical and orderly management. 
Individual duties and responsibilities. The ideal pattern shop. 

There is no department connected with the modern machine shop in 
which a good system of management, administered by a careful, methodical 
man, in a quiet and orderly manner, will be of more benefit to the establish- 
ment in general than the pattern shop. It is too often the case that this de- 
partment is looked upon as being non-productive; a source of continual 
expense; not producing anything which may be sold at a profit; and conse- 
quently should be managed as cheaply as possible. 

Therefore we see the pattern work done in a part of the shop not at all 
fitted for such work, possibly in one end of a machine room and subject to 
the iron dust and dirt which is not shut out by even a board partition, and 
sometimes by one only half the height of the room. We find it poorly equipped 
with inadequate and often obsolete machinery, supplied with poor lumber, 
and lacking many of the essentials for producing good work. Often men are 
employed because of the low wages they are willing to work for, rather than 
those of the requisite ability in their chosen trade. 

There is always a vast difference between cheapness and economy, as 
the terms are generally understood, and these false ideas of economy generally 
result in the expenditure of more money finally than if such short-sighted 

298 




PATTERN SHOP SYSTEM 299 

ideas gave way to the policy of seeking for the best, being willing to pay for 
it, and then expecting high efficiency of employees and the production of 
good work that would stand the test of hard usage, rather than that which 
must be frequently repaired and strengthened in order to keep it in use. 

While these facts should be strenuously adhered to as to the regular 
work of the pattern shop intended for permanent use, we should not lose 
sight of the occasional jobs of pattern work intended for only a few castings, 
and therefore should be made with this end in view, and often at one half the 
expense of a thoroughly made, permanent pattern. 

That there has been a good deal of improvement along these lines within 
the last few years is undoubtedly true, yet the fact remains that there is still 
in many shops room for more changes for the better, both in matters of economy 
of expense and a higher standard of workmanship. 

The following plans and systems of handling the work are the result of 
practical experience as well as years of observation of this and kindred work, 
and it is hoped that they may offer practical suggestions to men having the 
responsibilities of administering the affairs of such a department. 

In arranging the working force of the pattern shop a definite plan should 
be followed. This plan will depend to a great extent upon the kind of work 
that is to be done. That is, whether it is to be for large, medium, or small 
pattern, or perhaps a portion of each. Also, whether it is to be a good deal 
of new work, or a large proportion of the work is in altering patterns, or 
changing standard parts of them. In any event the one essential point to be 
considered is, to employ skilled or high priced pattern makers only on such 
work as need such ability, while all work that can be done by apprentices, or 
less skilled men, shall be done by them. For this as well as other evident 
reasons, getting out dimension lumber, making core prints, bosses, varnishing 
and marking patterns, and similar work, may be done by men at from half 
to two thirds of the pay that the skilled pattern maker receives. Therefore 
such machines as the planer, jointer, circular saws, etc., may be handled by 
the men who may be classed as "mill men," who, while they are not conver- 
sant with pattern making as a trade, can get out such dimension lumber as 
the pattern makers require in less time and at much less cost. 

The same will be the case with the man running the band saw in getting 
out segment work and then laying it up. Being employed on this class of 
work continually, he can not only do just as good work, but sometimes better, 
than a man who only does it occasionally, and of course do more of it and do 
it more economically. Putting in fillets, puttying, plugging screw-head holes, 
varnishing and rubbing down patterns, etc., is the work of an apprentice and 
not that of a skilled workman. 

To obtain the most efficient and economical results from this department, 



300 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

assuming that the work will be in the usual proportion of new work, altera- 
tions, repairs, etc., its force and the duties of the men should be classified 
somewhat as follows: A force of fourteen employees would consist of say one 
foreman, six skilled pattern makers, one lathe man, one planer man, one cir- 
cular saw man, one band saw and segment man, one finisher and varnisher, 
one man for keeping pattern records, lettering patterns, etc.,' and one laborer. 

For a force of ten employees there should be one foreman, four skilled 
pattern makers, one lathe man, one band saw and segment man, one man 
for keeping pattern records, finishing, varnishing, and lettering patterns, etc., 
and one laborer. 

For a force of seven men there would be one foreman, three skilled 
pattern makers, one lathe, band saw, and segment man, one planer, jointer, 
and circular saw man, and one man for keeping pattern records, finishing, 
varnishing, and lettering patterns, etc. A laborer must be called from the 
yard or some part of the shop when wanted. 

By finishing a pattern is meant putting in fillets, plugging screw-head 
holes, puttying, etc. In a force of ten men the lathe man will do whatever 
other work the foreman desires when he is not engaged on his special work. 
The man who keeps the pattern records looks after the issuing of patterns to 
the foundry and the storing of them when they are returned. An apprentice 
should be able to put in fillets, putty, varnish, rub down, etc., and where 
there are only a few men the foreman will keep the pattern records. 

It should be understood that when we speak of a skilled pattern maker 
we mean one who thoroughly understands his business, and this is a matter 
not always properly understood by men who have not had practical shop 
experience in this particular line. 

He must be able to read drawings quickly and thoroughly. He must 
have a good practical knowledge of molding from the patterns in the foundry, 
including those to be cast in "green sand," dry sand, and prepared loam; of 
those molded from patterns, and those " swept up" by sweeps or "strickles," 
and of the behavior of the various metals in casting, particularly of the different 
qualities of cast iron, of their liability to distortion, and the varying degrees 
of shrinkage. 

He must have a practical idea of the effect of distortion of castings from 
patterns of different forms and proportions of solid and cored work. 

He should know the correct amount of stock to allow for machining a 
casting when this is not specified on the drawings, and many other things 
besides the mere mechanical work of building up the pattern. In this part 
of the work he must know about the behavior of lumber when made into a 
pattern; how to so build up his pattern as to secure the greatest rigidity; to so 
dispose of the pieces of wood composing the pattern that its contraction and 



PATTERN SHOP SYSTEM 301 

expansion shall not distort the pattern, or the wood be split from the severe 
strains produced by wet sand, which is always a severe trial for a pattern. 

He must have his pattern divided in a proper place to mold easily and 
without unnecessary time to be spent by the molder; how to so divide his 
pattern as to render molding easy; when to make the pattern solid to avoid 
unnecessary expense, and when the job can be swept up in sand or loam and 
so practically to avoid the expense of a pattern. 

All these and many minor points relating to his work he must get by 
study and experience in order that he may be classed as a skilled pattern 
maker, and to accomplish this he must be a man of considerable ability to 
begin with, consequently we must not expect him to be a cheap man. 

A great deal of care should be exercised in selecting lumber for use in 
making patterns, and it will usually be found difficult to obtain really first- 
class stock of this character. Properly dried and seasoned lumber is not 
easily found, and even if it is said to have been kiln-dried it may have been 
left exposed to damp atmosphere afterwards and so absorbed sufficient 
moisture to make it necessary to keep it stored for quite a time in order to 
have it fit for use. 

It is almost impossible to know just the condition of lumber when it is 
purchased, either in the rough or planed. It is therefore one of the great 
conveniences, if not a real necessity, to have a dry-room, heated with a steam 
coil, so that lumber may be thoroughly " dried out" before being taken into 
the pattern shop for use. 

Care should be taken that this dry-room is not kept at too high a tem- 
perature, as such a condition will result in "season checks" in the surface 
and the ends of the lumber, owing to the too rapid contraction of the surface 
before the center of the plank, or board, is thoroughly dried. And even after 
it has been through the dry-room it should not be piled up horizontally, with 
the flat sides together, but kept on edge, in racks suspended from the over- 
head timbers of the pattern shop, and in which the lumber is held in position 
by vertical strips. 

Previous to being placed in these racks the lumber should be planed to 
certain regular thickness from a quarter of an inch to one inch by sixteenths, 
and from one inch to two inches by eighths. Lumber thicker than two inches 
should ordinarily be left in the rough until wanted for use, unless there are 
many large and heavy patterns to be made. This lumber may be piled 
horizontally with strips laid between the planks every six feet or less, and 
directly over each other. 

As to the kind of lumber to be used, white pine is the most common, 
although much cherry is used for small patterns and should be used for the 
smaller loose pieces of pine patterns. In the Western States the author has 



^02 



MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 



seen butternut used to good advantage for patterns, particularly where the 
pattern has much hand work with the gouge to be done. It cuts easily and 
smoothly and is stronger than white pine. Mahogany makes a very nice small 
pattern, but is unnecessarily expensive for any other patterns. 

In selecting lumber for patterns care should be taken to get that which 
has been properly cut from the log, that is, lumber in which the edge oj the 
grain shows on the side 0} the board. Otherwise it will be very liable to warp, 
no matter how much care has been taken to dry it, or to keep it well protected. 

This will be better understood by referring to the engravings. Fig. 201 
shows a cross-section of a board cut from the log in a proper manner. Fig. 
202 shows the result of cutting the board from near the surface of the log, 





Fig. 201. — The Right Way to 
cut a Board. 



Fig. 202. — The Wrong Way to 
cut a Board. 



making what is technically known as a "siding." The dotted lines show 
how it will warp. This is due to the fact that the sap, or outer portion of the 
log, which is of newer growth, is less dense, and will contract more in the process 
of seasoning. 

It is usual to cut up logs in the manner shown in Fig. 203. The boards 
taken off near the surface of the log are trimmed with an edging saw and 
should be sold as sidings, for inferior work, but never used as good pattern 
lumber, unless in a place where they are held and confined so firmly that they 
cannot warp or distort the pattern. For use as pattern lumber, or for any 
really good work, the log should be cut up as shown in Fig. 204, which pre- 






Fig. 203. — The Usual Way of 
cutting up a Log. 



Fig. 204. — The Proper Way of 
cutting up a Log. 



Fig. 205. — Quartering the Log. 



serves the grain in a proper direction as nearly as possible, but is not as eco- 
nomical as to the value of the lumber, as it makes a number of quite narrow 
boards. The furniture manufacturers' term of "quartered oak" refers to a 
log cut up as shown in Fig. 205, which is the most nearly correct so far as 
getting all the good lumber possible out of the log. 



PATTERN SHOP SYSTEM 303 

Pattern lumber is nearly always expensive, no matter where it may be 
purchased, and much more care should be used in cutting it up in the shop 
than is usually the case. If this matter is properly considered and thoroughly 
understood, very little need be wasted. It is well to have a series of shelves, 
placed conveniently to the circular saws, upon which such scraps as are likely 
to be useful may be arranged according to their size or shape, so as to be 
convenient to find when small pieces are wanted. 

When a board or plank is cut and a considerable portion of it is left it is 
customary to stand it up against the wall, or in some convenient corner. 
This is repeated until a quantity accumulates, the lower ends of the pieces 
projecting further and further out from the wall, occupying more and more 
of the floor space, continually "kicked and cussed" until the nuisance becomes 
unbearable and a cleaning-up process usually results in throwing a good many 
pieces into the scrap pile. 

This might easily be avoided by making a rack, consisting of a piece of 
3x4 inch scantling, in which are fixed hard wood pins one inch in diameter, 
placed about six inches apart, and projecting about a foot. This scantling is 
spiked to the wall in a horizontal position, three to four feet from the floor, 
with the pins projecting outwardly from it. Pieces of lumber four to eight feet 
long may be conveniently set up on end between the pins, and any piece 
wanted may be readily removed without disturbing any of the other pieces. 
The length of this rack will, of course, depend upon the available space that 
can be spared for it. One near the circular saws, in addition to the scrap 
shelves described above, will be found very useful. 

One of the best methods of working up the accumulation of small scraps 
is to have an apprentice make them up into core prints and bosses of all the 
various sizes in common use, keeping the different sizes in suitable boxes or 
bins built against the wall. This will not only use up the scraps but will save 
a good deal of the time of the pattern makers, whose time is too valuable to 
be spent at this common work. 

Another point needs attention in most shops, and that is the too frequent 
disposition to use first-class lumber for such parts of a pattern as cleats, 
stop-off pieces, core box backs, the inside framing of a boxed-in pattern, etc., 
when lumber at half the price would be just as good and cost no more to work 
up. A considerable saving in lumber bills may be made by attention to these 
matters, and the standard of good work not lowered for any practical purpose. 

Fillets and dowel pins can be much cheaper purchased than made in the 
shop. A good deal of discussion as to the relative merits of wood and leather 
fillets has been indulged in. The pattern maker's time will no doubt be 
saved, and good pattern work be the result of using wood fillets for straight 
work and leather fillets for curves. 



3 o4 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

The patented brass dowel pins should be put into all patterns that are 
to be in continuous use, and the malleable iron rapping and lifting plates, let 
into the pattern, should be used on all patterns large enough to need them. 
A stock of these convenient and very necessary articles should always be 
kept on hand and ready for use. 

The system of marking and listing patterns is usually arranged in the 
drafting room, and the lists furnished to the pattern shop for use and guidance. 
The plan recommended is to designate each machine built, by a letter of the 
alphabet, or a combination of two of them, and to indicate the individual 
patterns of each machine by numbers. 

Similar parts of machines of the same type take the same numbers. 
Thus, if the letter of a machine is B, the patterns will be marked Bi, B2, 
B3 and so on. When a change is made in a pattern, a letter X is added, 
making the pattern B3 read B3X. If changed a second time it will become 
B3XX. Further changes would be indicated by one X followed by a number 
to indicate the number of changes that had been made. For instance, if it 
had been changed the fourth time it would be marked B3X4. If the swing 
of a lathe is to be increased or a planer to be widened, by a special order, the 
new patterns made necessary by this change would be marked with both of 
the letters indicating the machines, as for instance, the letter K, indicating a 
30-inch planer to be widened to 36 inches, the letter being L, the new patterns 
necessary would be marked K-L, the hyphen being used to indicate that two 
machines are meant. 

Where a machine designation necessitates two letters of the alphabet in 
consequence of the fact that the letters are exhausted by the variety of machines 
built, the hyphen is omitted. The letters I O X are omitted as designating 
letters, as the first two so nearly resemble figures, and the letter X is used to 
indicate alterations of the patterns. 

Pattern letters and figures should be formed with two sharp points on 
the back, which may be forced into the wood of the pattern and thus hold 
them securely. The addition of a little thick shellac varnish will hold them 
more firmly. 

These letters and figures may be purchased, or they may be cast in 
the pattern shop, and as a large number of them are used this will be the 
more economical way to obtain them. A brass mold in two parts, hinged 
together, may be made, one part having the letters formed in it, and 
the other with tapering holes for forming the points on the back of the 
letters. The metal used is lead, to which is added a small quantity of 
antimony. A still better alloy is composed of lead 70 parts, antimony and 
bismuth each 15 parts. The mold is heated over a gas flame, while the 
metal is melted over a Bunsen burner. Care should be taken not to overheat 



PATTERN SHOP SYSTEM 305 

either of these alloys. They should be just hot enough to burn a pine stick 
to a rich brown. 

These letters and figures should be of the style known as sharp faced 
gothic, size three-eighths, or half inch, and are used only for indicating the 
letter of the machine, the number of pattern and the changes that have been 
made in it. The letters for the name of the firm, or company, which appear 
in prominent places on the machine, should be also of the sharp faced gothic 
style and of a size suitable for the available space. They should be purchased 
and kept in stock in proper boxes or cases. 

Usually three or four sizes of pattern letters and figures will be sufficient. 
These pattern letters having flat, smooth backs are often fastened to the 
pattern with small wire brads, which hold them very securely, but are likely 
to show roughly on the casting unless the job is very carefully done. 

A much neater and quicker job may be done by first putting a coat of 
light shellac on the backs of the letters, then a rather thick coat on the pattern 
and placing the letters on this before it is dry. In either case a line should 
be drawn on the pattern for the tops of the letters, and they should all be laid 
on and the position of each marked before fastening them to the pattern. 

The reason for using the sharp gothic style of letters in preference to roman 
or fancy styles is that there is such a large amount of draft to the sides of 
the letters that they draw very easily from the sand, and also, that for nearly 
all classes of castings the plainest letters have a much better appearance than 
the more ornamental or complicated ones. 

Pattern letters and figures should be kept in convenient cases or boxes 
so as to be securely protected and readily found when wanted. The most 
convenient form of case is that shown in Fig. 206. This case is 20 inches 
wide and 28 inches long. The strips around the ends and back are five- 
eighths inch thick and one and a quarter inches wide; the front is the same 
thickness and one and three quarter inches wide; the bottom being half an 
inch thick. The partitions are a quarter of an inch thick, and are " notched 
together" as in a type case. The letter boxes are 3 x 4J inch, except for the 
letter X, which is 4^ x 6J inch, as many of these are used in marking changes 
of pattern. The figure boxes are 2x3 inch, except that of the figure 6, which 
also answers for the 9, the box being 3 x 4J inch. Each case is furnished 
with two drawer pulls, and the front should be plainly marked with the size 
of the letters and figures contained in it. 

The care of wood fillets, so as not to injure the feather edges, is important, 
and a safe receptacle should be provided for them. In order to have these 
articles, as well as leather fillets, brass dowels, wood dowels, rapping plates, 
etc., properly cared for and arranged in an orderly manner where they can 
be readily found, the case or cabinet shown in Figs. 207 and 208 is designed 



306 



MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 



to meet these requirements. The lower part of this case is 59 inches wide, 
20J inches deep and 26 inches high, and contains six of the cases for pattern 
letters and figures, as shown in Fig. 206, twelve bins for malleable iron rapping 




Fig. 206.— Case or Drawer for Pattern Letters and Figures. 

plates, and three drawers properly divided for holding brass dowels. The 
upper part of the case is 8 J inches deep and contains at the top six spaces 




Fig. 207. 



Fig. 208. 



Cabinet for Pattern Letters, Fillets, Dowels, Rapping Plates, etc. 

for wood dowels, and beneath these six spaces for wood and leather fillets, 
both kinds being placed in the same space. The wood fillets being made in 
four-foot lengths there is ample space for them. This case, should be made 



PATTERN SHOP SYSTEM 307 

of f-inch pine, with a back J- inch thick. It will be found a great conven- 
ience, as well as a means of saving these articles from waste and injury. 

There should be another case with shelves 10 inches wide for holding 
steel wire brads and wood screws. There should be shelf room enough to 
show at the front one package of each size that may be used. 

Several other packages of the same size may be piled behind the front 
one as reserve stock. These cases should not be much over five feet high, and 
arranged against the walls in such a situation as to be most out of the way 
and yet convenient for the men to get at. They should be built of f-inch 
boards. The shelves for any articles as heavy as wood screws, brads, or steel 
wire nails should be supported by uprights about 30 inches apart. 

These cases should have two coats of light shellac varnish. It is always 
best to have these and all similar fixtures present a neat and clean as well as 
orderly appearance. It will have a good effect on the workmen and they will 
take more interest in their work and have more respect for the shop and its 
management to realize that all these matters relating to their wants are foreseen 
and properly attended to. 

All patterns should be so colored in the varnishing as to show the material 
of which they are to be cast. To effect this all core prints should be red. 
Patterns for gray iron castings should be black ; for malleable iron castings, 
brown ; for steel castings, blue ; for brass castings, yellow ; and for bronze 
castings, orange. These colors may be easily made by the addition of ver- 
milion, lampblack, burnt umber, ultramarine blue or chrome yellow to 
ordinary shellac varnish. 

The colors should be purchased in a dry state and cut with a little alcohol 
before being added to the varnish. The brown and blue may need to be 
made a little lighter in color, which may be effected by adding a little dry 
white lead, cut with alcohol as before. To make the orange, add a little red 
to the yellow. This method will save a great deal of needless trouble and 
annoyance from patterns being cast of the wrong material, as colors will 
always appeal to the eye, and are more easily remembered than any written, 
printed, or oral directions. 

The pattern loft should be so arranged that the groups of shelves are 
located between the windows, projecting out from the walls so as to form 
alcoves or passages between them about four feet wide. The best form of 
shelves will be those supported in the center, near each end, by a vertical 
standard of wrought iron pipe, set in a cast iron base resting on the floor. 
Fixed at proper heights on these pipes are cross bars of cast iron, upon which 
the planks composing the shelves are supported. This leaves the edges of 
the shelves clear of any obstruction, greatly facilitating the handling of patterns. 

A similar arrangement of shelves may be made with wooden vertical 



308 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

and cross supports, the former being fastened to the floor below and the over- 
head timbers above. Space should be provided on the floor, or on low sup- 
ports, or a low platform, for large and heavy patterns, so as to have them in 
a convenient position for handling. Overhead tracks and trolley hoists may 
run through the center of the pattern loft for convenience in handling large 
patterns. They may thus be handled very quickly and economically. 

In storing patterns in the pattern loft, those belonging to one machine 
should be confined to one section or group of shelves as much as possible, 
the larger ones on the floor or the lower shelves, and the smaller ones on the 
upper shelves. The name and letter of the machine should be plainly marked 
on a strip nailed to the front of a shelf four or five feet from the floor. If 
different colors are used to designate different machines, or types of machines, 
these signs may be painted the same colors, for convenience in finding such 
patterns as may be wanted. 

The patterns for machines of the same general type should be grouped 
in one part of the loft, occupying adjacent groups of shelves, if necessary to 
use those of more than one group. Patterns for castings of malleable iron, 
steel, brass, and bronze should be kept on one of the shelves in the same group 
as those for gray iron castings. If special shelves for all the patterns for any 
one of these materials are kept together there is more liability to mistake in 
sending the proper ones to the foundry. 

The foreman should have a record of the location of all patterns in the 
pattern loft. The system which will be found to require the least amount of 
writing and will be the easiest to keep correct from day to day will, no doubt, 
be the card system. To render this system useful there should be a card for 
each pattern, and written upon it the letter designating the machine, the 
number of the pattern, its name, and a list of all loose pieces that should go 
with it. These cards may be of ordinary cardboard stock, cut 3x4 inches 
and requiring no printing or ruling. The cards representing the patterns of 
each machine should be grouped, as for instance, an engine lathe, divided 
into such groups as the bed, headstock, tailstock, carriage, etc., and these 
groups separated by guide cards, which may be cut 3J x 4 inches, with these 
designations written on the exposed quarter of an inch. Such a guide card 
will stand more hard usage in constant handling than those cut with the usual 
small tabs. 

These cards should be kept in small, plain drawers, each holding the 
cards for one machine, the letter and name of which will be marked on its 
front. As cardboard stock may be had in twelve or more colors and shades, 
these should be utilized for machines of the same general type, as a matter 
of convenience. 

Or, if desired, cards of different colors may indicate the material used 



PATTERN SHOP SYSTEM 309 

in the castings. For instance, a gray card for gray iron castings; a brown card 
for malleable iron castings; a blue card for steel castings; a yellow one for 
brass castings; and an orange one for bronze castings. 

When the patterns are in the pattern loft the cards remain in the usual 
card drawers. When the patterns are sent to the foundry the cards repre- 
senting them are moved from their accustomed drawer to one or more large 
drawers marked "At the Foundry," and are replaced when the patterns are 
returned. If the dates when these changes are made should be required the 
cards may be made a little larger, and the dates of the issue and return of 
the patterns be entered on them with a rubber dating stamp. 

By this system the backs of the cards as well as the fronts may be thus 
used. When all available space has been utilized a new card may be made 
out. There appears to be only one objection to the use of cards and that 
can be easily overcome by a reasonable degree of care and attention. This 
is the liability to put a card in the wrong place, thus causing considerable 
loss of time to again locate it. 

To avoid trouble by the misplacing of cards in the card drawer it is 
always desirable that only one person shall handle the cards, except in 
special cases. 

When a scheme of different colored cards is used the liability of this 
error is much lessened. The card system still remains the quickest and least 
complicated, as well as the most flexible one in use at present. 

The time of all employees should be kept on cards in a time recording 
clock, a day time card being registered for the use of the time keeper, and 
also on job time cards, each of which represents the time spent by a single 
employee on a single job, or order number, these aggregating, at the end of the 
week, the same number of hours as the day time cards. 

In addition to these cards there is a material and cost card, kept by the 
foreman, which contains on one side an account of all time spent on the job 
by all who have worked on it, and on the other side an account of all material 
used and properly chargeable to that order number. This card is turned in 
to the cost clerk when the job has been completed These cards should be 
5x7 inches and of thick card, ruled and printed similarly to that used for 
the same purpose in the machine shop departments, except that the articles 
enumerated will be white pine lumber, cherry lumber, wood screws, wire 
nails, wood fillets, leather fillets, wood dowels, brass dowels, rapping plates, 
pattern letters, etc. 

The cost of gum shellac, alcohol, glue, dry colors, etc., will be charged 
upon a percentage plan, the amount used in a month being kept once or twice 
a year and its relative value to the value of patterns made in the same period 
being sufficiently accurate for the purpose. 



3io MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

If the system herein described is faithfully, consistently, and carefully 
carried out it will be found to exercise a good effect upon the employees by 
interesting them in its methodical and orderly management ; it will save much 
time usually lost in this class of work; it will produce more good work with 
the same number of men, or the same expense; every man will know his 
duties and responsibilities; the daily routine of the shop will run smoothly 
and without friction ; and there will be a prevalent air of economy and efficiency 
in the department that is seldom found where the usual methods, with their 
wasteful disregard for time and material, are in vogue. 

Properly managed, the pattern shop may be one of the best and most 
economical departments of the entire plant, but carelessly managed it is no 
small factor in reducing the profits on manufacturing operations. 



CHAPTER XXXI 

GENERAL EFFICIENCY IN MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS 

Changes and improvements. The modern factory. Manufacturing conditions of the 
present time. Economy a necessity. Arrangement of departments. Character of 
the work in different departments. Transferring stock. Economy of power. Various 
systems. Necessary conditions. Location of shafting. Roller bearings. Arrange- 
ment of machines. Machines on benches. Efficiency of machines. High speed steel. 
Design of machines. Design of the cutting tools. Transportation of stock and ma- 
terials. Shop tracks. Elevators. Trucks. Cars. Overhead trolleys. Distribution 
of small tools. Overhead carriers. Vertical carriers. Economy of the pay roll. 
Cheapness not necessarily economy. Classifying employees. Classifying the work. 
Time accounts. Registering clocks. 

Everything in nature lives, moves, and has its being by a well-defined 
system of natural laws which govern all animate and inanimate things, and 
all tend towards the evolution and development of life and matter into an 
innumerable variety of more complete and perfect forms. 

In our world of business, trade, and manufacture, we shall do wisely if 
we strive to imitate nature in these respects, to the end that whatever plans we 
may devise, whatever changes we may effect, or whatever processes we may 
develop, they shall be for the better and more perfect use of the means at our 
command, and in fact and in truth we may so labor 

"that each to-morrow 
Finds us farther than to-day," 

that each step we take may be a real improvement, a real advancement to 
better and more perfect conditions of whatever we manage and control. 

And in so doing we shall do well to remember that change is not always 
progress. That a narrow-minded and short-sighted view of matters, facts, 
and conditions often lead men, seeing the successful changes effected by their 
more broad-minded fellows, to endeavor to imitate them by simply making 
changes. Often to the detriment rather than the betterment of existing 
conditions. 

Hence we should proceed with a well considered and well planned 

311 



3 i2 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

system, supported alike by theory and experience, since such a system will 
have all the chances in its favor and consequently always make for success, 
more or less certain, of course, according to the conditions of the case, while 
without systematic proceeding to a betterment of conditions will but invite 
the failure that usually follows. 

These conditions and observations are applicable to nearly all positions 
in life, but in this chapter we propose to consider briefly their relation to the 
equipment of the modern factory in the effort to decrease its expense and to 
increase its efficiency in the regular routine work of manufacturing. 

As no particular line of goods to be manufactured is taken up the subject 
will be treated in a general way by referring to such matters as are common 
to all or nearly all factories whenever possible to so consider the matter. 

While the present time is by no means the "day of small things," but on 
the contrary the day of very large enterprises, it is yet true that the percen- 
tage of profits in comparison to the amounts invested and the number of 
workmen employed are relatively considerably less than formerly. It might 
be said with truth in almost all manufacturing operations that the percentage 
of actual waste fifteen years ago was greater than the net profits of to-day. 
It therefore behooves us to so arrange and conduct manufacturing operations 
that every item of unnecessary waste may be eliminated, every ounce of 
material utilized, and every hour of the employees' time expended in useful 
work, and properly accounted for. 

And not only is this true, but also that as every square foot of floor space 
costs a certain amount of outlay in the interest upon the real estate and build- 
ings, as well as their maintenance and insurance, and the expense for light, 
heat, and power, we must see to it that every available foot of floor space is 
occupied and utilized with profit, and every machine kept as constantly 
employed on profitable work as possible, since every occupied foot of floor 
space and every working machine must bear, not only its own proportion of 
these burdens of expense, but also a proportion of those of the unused space 
and the idle machines. 

In laying out and locating the various departments composing the factory, 
we must first carefully consider what the product is to be and the various 
operations which will be necessary to its manufacture. 

Then we will consider the different classes of machines needed to properly 
perform these operations. This will give us the needed facts in determining 
the number of departments required, while the number of machines needed 
of each class, to properly balance the production, and the space they are to 
occupy, will determine the floor space to be occupied by each of the different 
departments. 

The character of the work done in each department, from the raw 



EFFICIENCY IN MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS 313 

material to the finished product, will determine the location of the depart- 
ments in relation to each other, since the material or stock in progress 
through the factory should be moved on in one continuous course with 
little or no retrograde movement, as every unnecessary movement adds to 
the expense of manufacturing, and also interferes with other stock being 
moved in its onward way towards completion. This is a point too often 
lost sight of, or its application to existing or future conditions very much 
underestimated ; the result being an unnecessary expense, perhaps small, but 
continuous. 

Much discussion has been indulged in as to the relative merits and econ- 
omy of driving machines by long lines of shafting belted from the engine; 
shorter lines driven by electric motors; or motors for driving individual ma- 
chines. 

All of these systems are good in their place and may be used with 
economical results in the same factory. The special points in favor of each 
are usually as follows: Heavy machines, requiring considerable power, if 
placed near the engine, may probably be driven by the system of shafting 
and belting very economically, while if placed at quite a distance, say one 
hundred feet or more, it will be more economical to operate them individually 
by motors ; or, if several are located closely together as a group, to drive them 
from a short line shaft operated by a motor. 

We may say, therefore, that it is more economical to transmit power to 
distances of over one hundred feet by electricity than by shafting and belting. 
Large machines that are not in nearly constant use should be motor driven, 
as power is only used when the machine is in actual operation, while in the 
use of line shafting it must be kept in order, and we must use the power 
necessary to drive it continuously, even if there is only one machine of the 
group in operation. 

Where machines are driven from a long line shaft, it should be run at 
sufficient speed to permit the use of pulleys of moderate diameters. Slow 
running shafts require to be of comparatively large diameter and the pulleys 
much larger and heavier, consequently the friction is greater and the power 
must be increased in proportion. If a shaft 3 inches* in diameter is located 
in the center of the room, driving machines on both sides, its speed being 
150 R. P. M. and requiring pulleys from 18 to 36 inches in diameter to drive 
the machines, it will be found much more economical to replace it by two 
shafts of 2 inches diameter, and running 300 R. P. M., on each side of the 
room and carrying pulleys from 9 to 18 inches in diameter. The aggregate 
weights of the two shafts and their pulleys will be much less than that of the 

* Regular sizes of shafting are " on the odd sixteenth," that is 2^|, etc. The even inch is here given for 
convenience onlv. 



3H MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

one large shaft, the belts may be shorter, narrower, and lighter, and conse- 
quently the power much less. 

The weights upon line shafts will be materially reduced by the use of the 
pressed steel pulleys. This will apply to all pulleys of ten inches and larger. 
A still further economy will result by driving each of these two shafts by a 
motor. This would also permit the stopping of either of them in case of an 
accident, without interfering with the other. 

In cases where the factory is of several floors and the power transmitted 
by vertical belts, the driven pulleys should be of the friction clutch form for 
the purpose of throwing out any one shaft without stopping any of the others. 
All shafting of two inches or over should be provided with roller bearings, pref- 
erence being given to those of the flexible type. An automatic system of 
lubrication for shafting has become a necessity and will be a great saving of 
power. The simple form of a reservoir beneath the bearing, from which the 
oil is drawn through a piece of felt, and returned by way of grooves at each 
end of the box, is an excellent and economical device, although there are 
many others equally as efficient. 

The location and relative arrangement of machines is a matter of much 
importance. If the department contains a variety of quite small and medium 
sized machines, the smaller ones may be well arranged on benches along the 
walls where the light is always good. The bench may be very useful for 
holding stock and material in process of manufacture. This method will 
leave the central portion of the room for larger machines set up on the floor, 
and still leave ample passageways in a building of the usual width, say forty 
feet. This would allow, on each side, a bench two feet wide, another two feet 
for the operator, behind whom would be a passageway six feet wide, and 
still leave a 20-foot space in the center for larger machines, and a central 
space for a passageway, car track, etc. 

Frequently machines set on wall benches may be driven from a very 
light shaft located only three or four feet above the bench, thus eliminating 
about 50 per cent of the lengths of the machine-driving belts, and still leaving 
them long enough for good service. Machines of the same general type and 
doing the same class of work, or consecutive operations upon it, should be 
grouped together, for convenience in handling the stock in its continuous 
progress. 

The degree of efficiency of machines operating on cutting metals may 
be very materially increased by careful experiment and study of speeds, the 
best qualities of tool steelfor the particular purpose, and the form of the 
tools. It is not good economy to force cutting speeds to the highest limit, 
even with the best high-speed steel. The point to be determined is the highest 
economical speed for the metal operated upon, the form of the piece being 



EFFICIENCY IN MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS 315 

made, and the particular machine used for the work. And however much 
we may experiment in this matter we shall probably never arrive at any fixed 
rule of say so many feet per minute for machine steel, so many for cast iron, 
steel, brass, bronze, etc. 

Much will depend on the design of the machine, the manner of holding 
the tool, as well as the method of holding the piece to be machined ; the whole 
combining to give rigidity and prevent vibration, both laterally and in the 
direction of motion, as even the slightest vibration of tool or work will reduce 
the possible cutting speed. 

Neither shall we arrive at any fixed angle of side clearance or top rake 
for a cutting tool, inasmuch as that it depends to a considerable extent on 
the form and rigidity of the machine used, the nature of the cut, etc. 

The operations of milling, drilling, and tapping, as well as nearly all 
similar operations, will require the same observation and experiment to arrive 
at the best, most efficient, and economical speeds, in view of the individual 
conditions governing the work. 

Where the work is heavy enough to warrant it, there should be shop 
tracks, let in flush with the floor level, upon which should run shop cars of 
such dimensions and weights as their loads may demand, and of such form 
as may be necessary to adapt them to the particular form and character of 
the stock and material to be handled. For this purpose they may be pro- 
vided with racks, shelves, trays, boxes, crates, etc., as may be needed; these 
accessories being readily removable so that others may be substituted. In a 
factory of several floors, the elevators connecting them should be provided 
with similar tracks, so that cars may be conveniently run upon them and 
taken to any desired floor. 

There should be a number of switches, at least one to each line of tracks, 
where cars may pass each other, so as to avoid lost time. At one end of the 
room a cross track may be laid, forming connections with the principal tracks 
by curves, or by turntables at the intersections. 

When the character of the stock and material to be moved is not of 
sufficient weight to require tracks, the cars may be replaced by trucks of 
proper dimensions, their wheels being provided with rubber tires to avoid 
jar and noise. Both of these methods of transportation may be advisable, 
say a track through the center of the rooms and trucks serving the machines 
at the sides. The accessories for trucks and cars should, of course, be inter- 
changeable. 

Where there are no belts or other obstructions in the way, overhead 
trolleys may be arranged for transporting light stock and materials, with 
economy. These trolleys may run upon overhead I-beams, or beams of 
special form adapted to their use. These may also be used on the elevators 



3 



16 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 



and connect with the overhead system to good advantage. Switches are as 
readily used in this system as in floor tracks, but the same degree of adapta- 
bility of racks, boxes, or other special accessories will not be realized. 

Particular attention has been given to this question of transportation as 
it is a matter where a good deal of useless expense may be saved if it is properly 
understood, rightly considered, and carefully planned and arranged. 

By a perfectly arranged system of transportation much time of the em- 
ployees at the machines may be saved, as well as some of the confusion incident 
to the employees going after their work or delivering what they have completed, 
as is sometimes the case. 

Proper arrangements should be made for conveying small tools to and 
from the tool room. It is a most unnecessary waste of time to permit opera- 
tives to leave their machines to grind tools, or to go to the tool room to ex- 
change them. Overhead carriers similar to the cash carriers in large stores 
may be utilized with considerable saving of time over the employment of a 
sufficient number of boys, as a sharp tool may be quickly sent to the machine 
and the dull one taken out and returned without the operator leaving the 
machine. 

Should there be only one tool room to several floors, a vertical carrier 
may connect them with the overhead carriers, requiring only the services of 
a boy on each floor. This vertical carrier is simply a belt or chain running 
over a pulley at the basement and another at the top floor, and being provided 
with small trays, or buckets, which should be painted a different color for 
each floor, so that their contents may readily reach their proper destination. 
A speaking tube should connect the different floors. 

One of the most important matters to be kept constantly in mind in the 
management of a factory is the pay roll; and in keeping this at a minimum, 
let us not forget that cheapness is not necessarily economy. And that cheap 
employees are often like cheap goods, ultimately expensive. Shop men of 
experience will all remember instances where the work done by a good man 
at a high rate actually cost less money than if done by an inferior man at 
half the pay, while the shop burden of expense was less on account of quicker 
work. 

The one important point is to keep each class of employees on the 
work where they are the most profitable to the establishment, and this propo- 
sition involves conditions that can only be met by years of practical experience. 

Again, employees should, as far as possible, be kept on the same class of 
work, as they thereby attain not only a great degree of speed, but accuracy 
in doing their work, which is not possible if they are changed from one kind 
of work to another. This is one of the most certain methods of increasing 
their efficiency. 



EFFICIENCY IN MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS 317 

A watchful care must be exercised over all time accounts, particularly of 
such employees as may be called upon to labor on different classes of work, 
or on different orders, to the end that no part of their time is charged to some 
general account when it is possible to assign it to a special one. 

All employees should register their time on day time cards in a record- 
ing time clock, for the use of the time keeper in making up the pay roll, 
and again on job time cards (a separate one for each job, or order number), 
for the use of the cost clerk. These latter must, of course, aggregate the 
time indicated on the day time cards. They should be made out by the 
department foreman, who should see that they are properly recorded, and he 
should approve them with his O. K. stamp at the end of the week before 
they go .to the cost clerk. 

Within the limits of this chapter it is only possible to refer briefly to some 
of the more salient points in factory economy and efficiency, but it is hoped 
that a few hints given may nevertheless prove useful and practical to those 
having charge of these matters, and that if they are conscientiously worked 
out upon the lines herein suggested and those more minutely described in the 
previous chapters, with a watchful care to their adaptation to the prevailing 
local conditions, and to their success in actual practice day by day, the author 
is assured that their success will be amply demonstrated in other cases, as he 
has often found in his own experience under similar conditions and circum- 
stances. 



CHAPTER XXXII 

MACHINE SHOP MUTUAL AID ASSOCIATION 

The necessity of such an organization. Sick benefits. The lodge method. Death claims. 
Accidents and sickness. Economy of the proposed system. The general plan. The 
physician. Officers of the association and their duties. Business meetings. Weekly 
dues. Classification of members. Table of classes, dues, and treasury receipts. Rate 
of weekly benefits. Suspensions of the payment of dues. Simplicity of the plan. 

FIRST AID TO INJURED EMPLOYEES 

Necessity and value of such an emergency department. Under supervision of the physician 
of the Mutual Aid Association. His duty as an inspector. Liability to injury. 
Necessity of prompt attention. A case in point. Simplicity of the work. Emergencv 
room, its work and its equipment. Medicine cabinet. Instruments. Portable case. 
Electric call bell. First cost. Economy of maintenance in proportion to benefits 
conferred. 

MACHINE SHOP READING ROOM 

Shop conditions. Necessity of a shop reading room. Its value to both employer and the 
employees. The class of reading matter desirable. Technical publications. The 
employers' opportunity. The room necessary. Politics to be avoided. Circulating 
technical publications. Lectures and shop talks on pertinent subjects. Lessons in 
mechanical drawing and plane geometry. The spirit of the unity of interests. 

MACHINE SHOP DINING ROOM 



Good reasons for its organization. The progressive manufacturer. The room necessary. 
Cold lunches. Practical utility. A noonday restaurant. Plan of management. The 
Menu. Kitchen equipment. Practical advantages. Expenses of maintenance. 

Machine Shop Mutual Aid Association 






The fact that in the lives of all employees of shops and factories, in 
common with other people, come periods of illness and times of accidental 
injury, incapacitating them from following their usual avocations, and coming 
unexpectedly, as they do, often find them unprepared financially for such a 
loss of revenue and the additional expenses incident thereto, is the strong 
argument of the insurance companies' agents in seeking that class of their 

318 



MACHINE SHOP MUTUAL AID ASSOCIATION 319 

business which promises "sick benefits" and assistance in cases of accident. 
There is no doubt that such insurance often does much good in assisting the 
person during the time when he is incapacitated from performing his customary 
work. 

But, that the usual methods of insuring in this manner are the most 
economical is certainly an open question, and many there are who do not 
believe that it is. Again, the form of mutual insurance in lodges, many of 
which form a larger superior body, or grand lodge, and several of these again 
forming a supreme body, while they may be an improvement in some respects, 
do not seem to meet all the requirements, as may be readily seen from the 
fact that once in a while we hear of these organizations going to pieces, and 
the persons who have faithfully paid in their money year after year find it 
swept out of existence so far as their interests are concerned. While it is 
true that this form concerns more particularly the death claims, yet it does 
also affect those for sickness or accidental injuries as well. It is true, however, 
that this plan is more economical to administer than the first plan, yet it still 
has too great administrative expenses, which may be avoided by the plan here 
proposed. It also has the disadvantage that in some parts of a large field of 
operations more money will be required for claims than in other parts, and 
consequently the healthier portions must be drawn upon to make up the 
deficiencies of the less favored localities. 

So far as financial assistance in cases of accident is concerned, it would 
seem best that each organization, as the employees of one shop or manufac- 
tory, for instance, should stand alone, and by mutual assistance realize the 
greatest measure of benefit with the least possible outlay for administrative 
expenses. There is no good reason why the same should not hold good in 
the cases of sickness. By this plan there will be a much greater degree of 
confidence among the subscribers or members, inasmuch as they all usually 
know each other, elect their own officers, and fix the dues, benefits, and 
general policy of the organization. Abundant instances of the success of 
such an organization are at hand. 

The plan here recommended is one, with a few modifications, with which 
the author was connected, and which succeeded beyond the expectations of 
its organizers, for many years. Briefly the plan is this. To organize a Mutual 
Aid Association, confined to the employees, male and female, of one company, 
firm, or corporation, who subscribe to its constitution and by-laws, agreeing 
to pay into its treasury stated amounts in proportion to their weekly pay, as 
dues or premiums, in accordance therewith. In consideration of these pay- 
ments they are to receive, when ill or disabled by injuries, a certain proportion 
of their weekly pay, and also the attendance of a physician selected and paid 
by the association, if they desire his services. 



320 



MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 



The officers are a president, vice-president, secretary, and treasurer; 
also an auditing committee of three members. The dues of the secretary 
and treasurer are remitted in consideration of their services. No salaries are 
paid except to the physician, who is not a member of the society. In small 
societies one person may fill both offices of secretary and treasurer. Where 
there are female members they should be represented in the board of officers. 
Business meetings are held once in three months, at which the officers report 
the business done during the preceding quarter. The proprietors of the 
concern will usually furnish a room in which the meetings may be held. 

The dues per week are one half of one per cent of the weekly pay, as being 
convenient to calculate. Thus each member pays a half cent for each dollar 
of weekly pay. If the pay is not in even dollars the next even dollar above 
the amount is taken as a basis in fixing the amount of dues. For conven- 
ience, the dues are collected once in four weeks (not monthly). The benefit 
paid after the first week of illness or injury is one half the weekly pay, reckoning 
fractions of a dollar of pay the same as in fixing the amount of dues. 

For a society of five hundred members a physician will usually contract 
to attend such members as desire his sendees for S250 per year. 

From the foregoing facts we may see that in a shop with five hundred 
employees, divided into classes as to amount of pay, the amounts collected 
will be as shown in the following table: 



EMPLOYEES 
IN EACH CLASS. 


WEEKLY PAY. 


WEEKLY DUES. 


TOTAL WEEKLY 
DUES. 


COLLECTED 

EVERY FOUR 

WEEKS. 


2 5 


$ 6.00 


3 cents. 


$0.75 


$ 3.OO 


5° 


7.00 


3§ • 


i-75 


7.OO 


75 


S.OO 


4 " 


3.00 


I2.00 


75 


9.OO 


Ah " 


3-37§ 


*3-5 


100 


IO.OO 


5 '• 


5.00 


20.00 


100 


I2.00 


6 - 


6.00 


24.OO 


5° 


15.OO 


-1 << 


3-75 


I5.OO 


2 5 


18.OO 


9 - 


2.25 


9.OO 


500 






Sp25 -^72 


$103.50 






This gives us $25.87 per week for the payment of claims. Experience 
proves that there will seldom be as many as three persons in the five hundred 
members receiving aid at any one time, and the number is usually considerably 
less. 

The amount of the aid or benefit paid being one half the weekly pay. it 
will be found upon calculation to average S5.62 per week, or $16.86 for three 
beneficiaries, which will leave a liberal balance for unusual calls, as well as 
for the payment of a physician, this balance being $2 18.00. 

'Whenever the funds accumulate in the treasury to an amount over $300, 
the collection of all dues ceases until the amount is reduced to that figure. 



MACHINE SHOP MUTUAL AID ASSOCIATION 321 

It will be seen that the plan and its administration is very simple, and in 
this, in a great measure, lies its success, while the mutual interest of all its 
members insures its smooth working and efficiency. Upon organizing such 
a society each member pays as an entrance fee the first four weeks' dues, and 
benefits commence as soon as occasion demands. 



First Aid to Injured Employees 

Still another adjunct to the organization of the modern machine shop 
that is productive of much good is the Emergency Room, wherein the acci- 
dentally injured employee may be quickly and properly treated. Where 
there exists a Mutual Aid Association, as suggested in the beginning of this 
chapter, this department will naturally come under the supervision of the 
physician of that association, who will instruct a suitable attendant in the 
duties of his position. He may also, at stated times, inspect the shops to 
ascertain if proper safeguards exist and are in proper use in and about the 
shops, such, for instance, as that all projecting set screws in collars and coup- 
lings on shafts are properly protected; that gears are provided with suitable 
coverings; that saws are properly covered with guards; that rapidly revolving 
cutters are guarded by mica or glass ; that the eyes of the men working where 
they are liable to injury from chips or flying bits of metal are protected by 
goggles; that they are also used as a protection in the grinding room where 
particles of emery are liable to injure them. These and many of similar 
nature must be looked after, yet when all this is attended to faithfully men 
are still liable to accidental injury, and for these emergencies proper facilities 
for rendering first aid to the injured are of very great importance, as it not 
infrequently occurs that the harm done by waiting for the arrival of a physi- 
cian or surgeon may be of greater consequence than the original injury. This 
is particularly the case where there is much loss of blood, as it is also in cases 
of sudden sickness as cholera morbus and similar affections. Such cases are 
occurring every day even in cities where a physician may be located within a 
block or two but may at the moment be absent from his office. The author 
remembers a case in which the workman died before medical aid could be 
obtained, although there were three physicians having offices within a radius 
of from fifty to two hundred yards of the shop, but all, unfortunately, absent 
at the time. 

The work to be performed by such an Emergency Department is usually 
of a very simple nature. The equipment of such a room will naturally include 
a cot bed, a stretcher, a suitable medicine cabinet, and a portable case that 
may be easily carried to an injured man in any part of the works. There 
should be in this room a stationary wash bowl supplied with hot and cold 



322 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

water, and a plentiful supply of towels, bandages, and the usual surgeons' 
dressings, such as iodoform gauze, absorbent cotton, adhesive plaster, isinglass 
plaster, powdered iodoform, etc. 

The medicine cabinet should contain such convenient remedies as tincture 
of arnica, Jamaica ginger, camphorated tincture of opium (paregoric), chloro- 
form, camphor, peppermint, aromatic spirits of ammonia (a restorative), 
whiskey, witch hazel, vaseline, a liniment of equal parts of chloroform and 
aconite, another of the same with one half the quantity of sweet oil added, 
a diarrhoea remedy composed of equal parts of tincture of opium, spirits of 
camphor, and tincture of rhubarb, dose 40 drops, and such other remedies 
as the supervising physician may direct. 

There should also be at hand a pair of straight and a pair of curved 
scissors, surgeons' needles and silk or gut, two medicine glasses, a four-ounce 
graduate, one each table, dessert, and tea spoons, two tumblers, sugar, bicar- 
bonate of soda, chloride of mercury tablets for making an antiseptic solution 
for cleansing wounds, a white enameled ware basin or bowl for holding the 
same, a tourniquet for arresting the flow of blood, a pair of small forceps, 
and such other instruments and appliances as directed by the physician. 

The portable case which the attendant may carry with him to any part 
of the works should contain only such articles as are likely to be needed in 
dressing a wound, stopping the flow of blood from a severed artery, relieving 
the convulsive cramps of cholera morbus and similar sudden affections, or 
restoring a patient liable to faint from loss of blood. 

There should be an electric call bell in the Emergency Room, connecting 
with push buttons in each department of the plant, by means of which the 
attendant may be quickly called to any part of the works. On responding 
to such calls he will always carry the portable case above described. These 
cases may be purchased complete, fitted with such appliances and medicines 
as may be desired from the wholesale drug and supply houses. 

Aside from the first cost of fitting up and purchasing the proper appliances 
for such a room, the cost of its maintenance is principally in the wages of the 
attendant, which may be very moderate in amount and whose instruction may 
be a part of the duty of the contract physician of the Mutual Aid Association. 
It may frequently happen that a young man studying medicine under this 
physician will give his services for the use of the Emergency Room as a study, 
and the value of the practice he may obtain in attending the men of the estab- 
lishment, as this will be of a nature to add much to his practical knowledge 
in the profession he has chosen. 

In proportion to the benefits conferred, the expense of maintaining such 
a department is nominal, and should not deter any progressive manufacturer 
from organizing it. Many cases of sudden sickness may be relieved by very 



MACHINE SHOP MUTUAL AID ASSOCIATION 323 

simple remedies if taken in time, and the man returned to duty in an hour 
or two that might otherwise require days and weeks for recovery. Many 
cases of accidental injury may be saved from fatal results by prompt attention, 
or from prolonged suffering by the timely aid of the emergency attendant. 
Once such a department is organized and its good effects and uniform benefits 
observed and appreciated, it will become a very popular adjunct to the manu- 
facturing establishment, and one that owner and employee alike will feel 
cannot be dispensed with. Such has been the experience of manufacturers 
who have organized such a service, and such will probably be that of any whose 
care and consideration for their employees induces them to establish it in 
their shops. 

The Machine Shop Reading Room 

In discussing the question of costs in the machine shop in the previous 
chapters reference has been made to the fact that high salaried workmen 
will frequently do a given piece of work for less actual cost for labor than the 
same work would be done by a man earning only one half the daily wages. 
The matter was followed up with the additional advantage of employing 
good workmen by the fact that the more highly paid man occupied only the 
same space, used the same machine, and as he did his work in less than half 
the time the burden of shop expense was less than half that of the work done 
by his less experienced shopmate. 

The natural inference to be drawn from these conditions, which may be 
met with every day in the machine shop and manufacturing plant, is that it 
pays to have skilful workmen. 

In these days of advanced thought on mechanical as well as other subjects, 
it is one of the necessities of the times that if a workman is to get to the head 
of his class in a proper understanding of his work and the conditions under 
which he labors and by which he is surrounded, he must make an effort to 
become better educated, not only in his chosen line but in other branches 
related to it. This education cannot always be obtained in schools, since 
there are to-day in the shops many men who have not enjoyed the advantages 
of a technical education and there are likely to be many of the same class in 
the future. 

Again, while the advantages gained by a technical training in the excellent 
schools of the present day are many, there are other and important advantages 
that should not be neglected, even by the technical graduate. These are the 
advantages gained by the systematic reading and study of technical and trade 
publications. They are for the most part filled with not only the newest 
but the most practical articles, descriptions, and essays that it is possible for 
their editors to obtain by a liberal outlay of money. They are not the com- 



324 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

pilations of what was the thought of years ago, but emanate from the brain 
and practical experience of men active in mechanical affairs, and selected 
for their practical utility by editors with a practical knowledge of the subjects 
of which they treat. They are, therefore, rich in theory, but richer still in 
live up-to-date practice. 

While the bright mechanic of to-day usually subscribes to one or more 
of these publications relating particularly to his own trade or specialty, this 
is not sufficient to give him the broad-minded view of conditions and the 
experiences of others that he should have. Still, the expense necessary to 
obtain a number of these often will deter him from gratifying Ins desire for 
a broader outlook that their possession might give him. 

For these reasons it would seem to be not only a matter of much benefit 
to the employees, but in an indirect though perfectly practical way an ad- 
vantage to the employer, to institute a Reading Room for the employees where 
they may have all the advantages to be desired by a free opportunity to read 
and study the best there is published in their particular lines. It is true, 
as everyone will doubtless admit, that one's reading has much influence on 
one's thoughts and opinions. Surely the same may be said in respect to its 
influence upon one's everyday work, and the more liberal are the conditions 
in this respect the more will be the actual benefit both to employee and 
employer. 

Every employer has it in his power to do something in this respect for 
the men that he employs. And the slight expense which he thus undergoes 
will have many and far-reaching effects. He will not only have better men, 
so far as their work is concerned, but better men in their knowledge of all 
that relates to it. He will have men more loval to his interests; better satisfied 
with their positions and with more pride in the fact that they are a part of 
an establishment managed upon a scale of intelligent liberality and con- 
sideration of the circumstances and conditions under which they labor. And 
the spirit of loyalty thus engendered will go far towards the success of the 
establishment in so far as it lies with the employees. 

In organizing a Shop Reading Room the first requisite is a good, light, 
clean room, in the office building if one there is available. It should be 
furnished comfortably but plainly, and with such furniture as will make it a 
pleasant place for the men to congregate. The room should be open during 
the noon hour and for two or three hours in the evening. 

As to the class of literature to be provided, it may be said that it should 
not be confined to technical publications, but may well include the best local 
papers, excluding, of course, those of a sensational kind, which do vastly 
more harm than good among all classes of the workingmen of to-day. Good 
magazines of general literature should be on hand, as well as books of history, 






MACHINE SHOP MUTUAL AID ASSOCIATION 325 

biography, and technical works bearing upon the industries in which the men 
arc engaged in their daily work. 

The question of politics should be eliminated as far as it is possible to 
do so, both by the choice of literary matter and the discouragement of dis- 
cussions of this nature. This should be particularly the case in view of the 
fact that there might be among the men a suspicion that the employer was 
endeavoring to impress his political opinions and prejudices upon them. 

The expense of providing all the literature for a shop of two hundred 
men ought not to cost over eight or ten dollars per month. Many publishers 
will furnish their publications free of expense if their use is explained to them, 
and in various other ways may good and valuable periodicals and books be 
acquired for the use of the men. 

There is another important use of the material in the Reading Room. 
This is that of circulating the books and periodicals among the employees for 
home reading, thus giving them free the advantages of reading matter that 
might not otherwise come in their way. It will generally be found that there 
are men in the shop who will act as librarian of the Reading Room, under the 
direction of the firm. A man of studious nature will naturally enjoy such a 
position and by various plans and his own personal interest in the scheme 
will do much to insure its success and to make it popular with the employees, 
and thus foster a fraternal spirit between shopmates which will be still further 
cemented by their common interest in the Mutual Aid Association described 
at the commencement of this chapter. 

Carrying out the idea of education of employees still further, there may 
be instituted among the men during the winter months a series of shop talks 
or lectures on mechanical and kindred subjects, not only by public-spirited 
citizens outside the shop, but particularly by the owners and officers of the 
establishment, that will go far towards the enjoyment and practical education 
of the men, but also, what is of considerable practical importance, foster a 
spirit of interest, not to say common interest, between the owners and their 
workmen, that will bear fruit in increased loyalty and to the best good of all. 
These lectures may also be profitable when concerned with subjects of public 
good and town improvement, whereby the workmen may gain enlarged views 
of the duties of good citizenship and many other important duties not directly 
connected with the shop. 

Another subject which will commend itself to the consideration of the 
younger mechanics will be a course of lessons in mechanical drawing and the 
use of plane geometry. These subjects are of great practical utility to young 
mechanics and at the present time every young man who aspires to become 
a first-class machinist is expected to be more or less proficient in them. Such 
lessons can usually be given by the chief draftsman or one of those working 



3 



26 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 



under him who possesses an aptitude for this kind of work. While he is im- 
parting to the members of a class the information that is always sought bv 
the ambitious young mechanic, he is receiving from the work much of benefit 
to himself. Still further, the effect will be to foster a certain feeling of interest 
between the drafting room and the machine shop, which in many shops is 
not as strong as it should be. but which is always necessary and valuable to 
the successful running of the establishment. 

This same spirit of unity of interest among the men of different depart- 
ments is a very desirable condition, and the wise manager or superintendent 
will always aid and encourage it in every legitimate manner. There is no 
one condition more conducive to the success of a manufacturing establishment 
than that all. from the owners to the youngest employee, shall realize and 
work for the common and mutual interest of all concerned, and no one con- 
dition that will go as far toward the avoidance of labor difficulties and the 
elimination of all disagreeable and adverse conditions as a feeling of mutual 
respect between owners and employees, and between one class of employees 
and another, and a feeling that in case of any real difference of opinion as to 
shop conditions, each side is perfectly willing to listen to the reasonable argu- 
ments and explanations of the other in a perfectly friendly and mutually 
interested spirit. 

The Machine Shop Dining Room 

The sharp competition in all lines of manufacture and the strife for su- 
premacy in all that goes to make up an efficiently productive manufacturing 
plant has not lessened the effort to improve the conditions of the workmen 
and to render their surroundings more pleasant and congenial. On the 
contrary, it would seem that those manufacturers of a broad-minded com- 
prehension of the necessities and conditions of the case, and with a liberal 
desire to do the fair and proper thing by the employees who serve them faith- 
fully, have taken up voluntarily many of these problems and. much to their 
credit, be it said, perfected wise and beneficent plans to this end. 

Among these is the Shop Dining Room, wherein the men may congregate 
to eat their lunches at noon, or to purchase at cost prices such lunches as they 
desire. 

This room should be sufficiently large to easily accommodate all the 
employees, who may sit upon fixed seats on each side of fixed tables, the con- 
struction of both being of a plain description such as any ordinary carpenter 
may build, and covered with white oilcloth. 

In many cities and even in smaller communities it is the custom of a 
large majority of the workmen to eat cold lunches which have not been im- 
proved by lying in a lunch box five or six hours, and drinking coffee that has 



MACHINE SHOP MUTUAL AID ASSOCIATION 327 

been made for that length of time, corked up in a bottle and then "warmed 
over" by setting the bottle on a hot steam pipe or suspending it with a string 
in the hot water in which the men are to wash up before they eat their lunch. 

To these men the privilege of assembling in a clean dining room where 
a cup of hot coffee, freshly made, is served at the employer's expense is one 
which all shop men would enjoy. To effect this is a comparatively simple 
matter for any shop owner, and requires but a moderate outlay as to first cost 
and for maintenance, as the dishes necessary may be of a very plain and 
inexpensive quality and the coffee may be made by one of the men who quits 
his regular work a half hour before the meal hour for that purpose. 

Some progressive firms have gone much further than this in organizing 
the Shop Dining Room and made it practically a noonday restaurant wherein 
the employees may get a warm lunch of well cooked and wholesome food at 
exactly cost price, which of course is much more reasonable than can be 
obtained at a restaurant which must be run for the profit there is in it. 

In one such Shop Dining Room the firm have completed its arrangements 
until it would seem that it is well-nigh perfection in this respect. The men 
may be divided in squads of ten and one of their number detailed as a waiter 
for the week or two as arranged, another taking his place at the end of that 
term. This waiter is provided with a tray and an apron with three pockets, 
in which he carries hard rubber meal checks of different colors, each color 
representing a different denomination of one, two, and five cents. These 
meal checks are kept by the time clerk and sold to the men in lots of from 
twenty-five cents to one dollar. 

To show the inexpensiveness of the dishes that may be served the following 
menu is given, and vouched for as being entirely practical and possible in any 
ordinary city. 

Pea Soup 3 cents Mince Pie 4 cents 

Roast Lamb 5 cents Coffee 2 cents 

Stewed Tomatoes 2 cents Tea 2 cents 

Mashed Potatoes 2 cents Milk 2 cents 

Ham Sandwich 3 cents Ginger Snaps, 5 for 1 cent 

Cheese Sandwich 3 cents Crackers, 5 for 1 cent 

Bread Pudding 3 cents 

Among other dishes served may be included sausages, hamburg steak, pork 
and beans, corn, cabbage, sauerkraut, turnips, parsnips, butter, bread, etc. 

At each meal the menu for the following day is displayed and each man 
given a chance to select what he desires for the next day's dinner, which the 
waiter enters upon a printed blank used for the purpose, which he gives to the 
cook, who may thus know what to prepare for the next day, so as to avoid 



328 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

unnecessary waste. The waiters assemble in the dining room fifteen minutes 
before the men quit work, don their aprons, line up and each in turn calls 
off his order from the order card and pays for the same in the checks above 
mentioned. By the time the men arrive the food is on the table and ready 
for them. 

By promptness in this matter they are all easily served even if the lunch 
time is for only a half hour. 

The kitchen equipment for a shop of moderate size need not be elaborate, 
and one cook and one assistant can easily prepare food for two hundred men, 
although at meal time he will need two extra men to assist in issuing the food 
to the waiters. 

There is no doubt that such a dining room would be of great advantage 
to the workmen of any establishment, and that by its organization and main- 
tenance the physical well-being of the men would be very much improved, 
the mutual good feeling between the owners and their employees fostered 
and strengthened, and many of the ills resulting from the cold lunch practice 
in the shop would disappear. 

The only expense of maintenance to the firm is the pay of the cook and 
his assistant and the fuel needed for cooking. To this must be added, how- 
ever, the cost of broken dishes and similar incidentals. This, of course, does 
not include the first cost of installation, or an amount representing the rent 
of the necessary rooms. 






CHAPTER XXXIII 

INCREASING THE EFFICIENCY OF MACHINES 

The question of efficiency. Classification of betterment work. Preparatory analysis. Classi- 
fication of machine work. Planing. Shaping. Milling. Heavy turning. Medium 
class of turning. Gear and rack cutting. Drilling and boring. Grinding. Improving 
the design of machines. Increasing the efficiency of a vertical boring mill. Better tools. 
Arrangement of machines. A specific example of re-arrangement. Transportation 
facilities. Beneficial results. Systematic planning. 

The question of efficiency is one of the most important with which the 
engineer has to deal. In the plans which he may devise for the arrangement 
and the erection of manufacturing buildings; in providing these buildings 
with power, heating, lighting, and transportation equipment; in inventing 
or purchasing the machinery best adapted for turning out the proposed 
product; and in employing the best workmen that can be found to operate 
these machines, — his plans will end in partial or complete failure if he shall 
not have kept in mind continually as his aim and objective the condition of 
realizing the highest efficiency of every piece of machinery and of every 
individual man of the plant. 

It is a positive fact, often proved by such specialists as the mechanical 
engineer, the production engineer, the standardizing and the efficiency en- 
gineers, that in a large majority of manufacturing plants at the present time 
the actual efficiency of the entire plant will fall below 50 per cent. This 
being the case in a large number of plants, it is our duty to ascertain the reasons 
for these conditions and to work out such plans for the betterment of these 
as may promise to produce the greatest benefit in the most economical 
manner. 

In considering the problem involved in this betterment work we may 
properly divide it into classes, which for logical consideration will be as fol- 
lows : 

First. The selection and adaptability of the machines used for the 
purposes for which they are intended. 

Second. The improving or re-building of existing machines so as to 
increase their range of work and efficiency. 

Third. The arrangement of machines with relation to each other for 
efficient operation. 

329 



33o MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

Fourth. The transportation facilities for bringing the material to the 
machines, and for removing that which has been operated upon. 

Fifth. An accurate record of the hours of running time, and the idle 
time, of the machines. 

These several propositions will be taken up in order and the comments 
and explanations in relation to them will embody the results of the engineer- 
ing experience, practice, and development of the present day. 

Primarily we will consider the extent and the nature of the work to be 
done, before we can make any calculation on the classes or the numbers of 
machines that may be necessary. This will be the work of an expert me- 
chanical engineer, who must analyze the product to be turned out as to the 
form and weight of the machine parts, the material of which they are to be 
made, and the machine operations necessary to prepare them for assembling 
them into the complete machines. This will be a long and arduous, as well 
as complex, task and one in which every new case will present differing condi- 
tions and circumstances which will call for much ability and good judgment 
of technical and manufacturing conditions. For these reasons it is mani- 
festly impossible to lay down more than a few general observations upon 
this important question. 

The following suggestions are given as representing the best machine 
shop practice in providing machines for the various classes of the work. The 
general class of work is given first, then the class of machines upon which 
the work is most efficiently and economically done. 

First. Planing. Planers are used for long cuts on heavy work. The 
product may be a single piece of considerable size and weight, and propor- 
tionately long. Or, a number of like pieces which may be placed end to end 
on a long planer table and cuts run over them all. 

Second. Shaping. The shaper is equally well adapted for work requir- 
ing shorter cuts, and work within its limits can usually be done more expedi- 
tiously than on a planer, particularly such work as is not adapted to be done 
with a single tool. 

Third. Milling. Of milling machines there are two general types, 
horizontal and vertical. The horizontal machines may be of the plain or 
universal forms. The vertical may have one or two spindles. There are 
also several kinds of special machines adapted to a certain range of special 
purposes. The milling machine in its various forms is adapted to a very 
large variety of work, particularly short cuts of irregular cross section. The 
vertical type is now used with a high degree of efficiency and accuracy on 
many kinds of work that was not formerly thought possible. The com- 
paratively recent appreciation of the efficiency of the inserted tooth cutter 
has much to do with this fact as well as the added usefulness and adapta- 



INCREASING THE EFFICIENCY OF MACHINES 331 

bility of the milling machine for many new uses. A form of large machine 
of somewhat similar construction as a planer makes wide and heavy cuts, 
frequently exceeding a planer in efficiency and accuracy. 

Fourth. Heavy Turning. For turning very large and heavy work such 
as rolling mill work, crank shafts, etc., the heavy triple geared lathes are 
best adapted. Special lathes are built for such work as roll turning, locomo- 
tive driving wheels, and similar work. Recently the vertical boring mill has 
been much used on many circular castings formerly machined on the face 
plate of a lathe, and with much greater economy. Several boring and turning 
tools are used simultaneously, and the work is more advantageously handled 
on a horizontal table than a vertical face plate. 

Fifth. Medium Class of Turning. This class of work in the form of 
shafts, etc., is very economically handled on the so-called "Rapid Reduction 
Lathes," the "Lo-swing Lathe," and similar highly developed types of the 
engine lathe, although much of this work is still done on the ordinary type 
of engine lathe, with various labor-saving attachments, gauges, and the like. 

Sixth. Small Turned Cylindrical and Flat Work. This class, including 
a great variety of small shafts, studs, pins, collars, flanges, stuffing box glands, 
gear blanks, and similar machine parts are economically made in hand or 
automatic turret lathes, automatic screw machines, and similarly designed 
special machines, as well as engine lathes having special attachments for 
doing this class of work. 

Seventh. Gear and Rack Cutting. This work is rapidly becoming of 
more importance in machines of modern design; so much so that there are 
many shops organized for the sole purpose of doing this class of work. In 
manufacturing concerns doing their own gear cutting automatic gear cutters, 
gear shapers, and gear planers are almost exclusively used, while hobbing 
machines for worm gears have an adjustable power feed device whereby very 
accurate work is turned out. Spiral gears, now so much used, are very 
generally cut on a universal milling machine, of which there are several of 
exceptionally good design and construction. 

Eighth. Drilling and Boring. There has been much development in 
this class of work in recent years, two of the most important results having 
been the production of the radial drills and the multiple spindle drills. The 
former is much used for heavy work and that which is large and awkward 
to handle, as the drilling device, being movable to any desired point within 
a quite large radius, while the work remains in a fixed position, is capable of 
a very large range and various angles of operation. The multiple spindle 
drill is particularly adaptable to jig work where several different sized holes 
are to be drilled at one operation. A special design of this form of drill pro- 
vides a special location of a spindle for each hole to be drilled in the same 



332 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

direction in the piece, and all are drilled simultaneously, or in the time oc- 
cupied in drilling one hole. Horizontal and vertical boring machines are 
used, not only for drilling large holes, but for boring out cylinders and other 
like castings requiring large and heavy boring work. 

Ninth. Grinding. Great accuracy, efficiency, and economy have been 
realized in the use of grinding operations. This work may be divided into 
three classes: (a) cylindrical grinding; (b) surface grinding; and (c) disk 
grinding. In the first the piece is usually placed on centers, and revolves in 
the opposite direction to the grinding wheel. In the second the work, or the 
wheel, travels to and fro on a table similar to a planer table, while the wheel 
revolves above it and is gradually moved across it. Disk grinding is a kind 
of surface grinding, but is mainly used for the purpose of finishing or polishing 
the surface of machine parts having flat surfaces. In this form the grinding 
surfaces are composed of flat cast iron disks whose surfaces are cut with a 
shallow spiral line. The surface is covered with emery cloth cemented to it. 
The work to be ground is laid upon a table normally located at right angles 
to the face of the disk, but capable of being adjusted to any desired angle 
when angular surfaces are to be finished. Two of these disks arranged facing 
each other, and one of them made adjustable, are used for grinding opposite 
surfaces of flat pieces. 

Improving the Design of Machines. The comparatively recent advent of 
"high-speed tool steel" and its ability to stand very high speeds, largely 
increased feeds, and heavy cuts, brought about conditions which called for 
much heavier and stronger machines. These the manufacturers at once 
began to design and build. But there remained many machines of the older, 
lighter, and less powerful types still in the shops. These were usually in good 
and serviceable condition, except as above stated. It therefore became an 
engineering problem to re-design, re-build, or strengthen these machines so 
as properly to fit them for the increased service demanded of them. The 
following is a simple example of how this work was accomplished. 

In carrying out these improvements the process need not necessarily be 
an expensive one. The improvement should only be undertaken after a 
thorough examination of the machine and the work that is to be done upon 
it, by a competent and practical man, well versed in this particular class of 
work, and the expense of whose services will frequently be saved in the 
economy of the work of reconstruction. 

A case in point is that of an eight-foot vertical boring mill of old design 
and construction, as shown in Fig. 209, which was required to do heavier 
and faster work than it was designed to do. The problem was to bring 
it up as near the capacity of a modern machine as possible. Upon exami- 
nation it was found that the cross rail, saddle, and boring bar parts and the 



INCREASING THE EFFICIENCY OF MACHINES 



333 



supporting side posts were quite sufficient for a considerably increased duty. 
The driving mechanism, however, was weak and not sufficiently strong for 
heavy cuts or the fast feeds made possible by the use of high-speed tools. 
While the table support was not as rigid as could be wished for, it was decided 
not to spend any money on that feature, as the work it was to do did not 
require extreme accuracy. 

The driving mechanism at A, Fig. 209, was constructed substantially 
like a back-geared lathe head attached to a suitable projection on the base 
of the machine, and whose main spindle reached to the edge of the circular 
table, and had fixed upon it a bevel pinion engaging a large bevel gear fixed 





Fig. 209. — Increasing the Efficiency of a Vertical Boring Mill. 

to the bottom of the revolving table, as shown at B. This mechanism con- 
sisted of face gears 2§ inches, and the back gears 2§-inch face, with a five- 
step cone of 3|-inch face. In re-designing this feature the face gears were 
made 3|-inch face and the back gears 3-inch face. The driving cone was 
made with three steps only, instead of five, thereby permitting the faces to 
be 5§ inches wide, as shown at C. The driving bevel pinion at B was of 
proportionately large pitch, but was made of cast iron. To gain sufficient 
strength it was replaced by one of steel. 

By this simple arrangement the power and cutting capacity of the ma- 
chine was increased over 50 per cent, while the increase of speed was gained by 
changing one overhead pulley. Its working capacity could be still further 
increased by the addition of another tool holding head. Thus the first and 
second methods were realized in this machine. 



334 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

Another method of increasing the efficiency of a machine by the addition 
of devices and attachments is more applicable when the work of the machine 
is a regular line of similar pieces. Special devices may be made for holding 
the work, so as to secure greater rigidity and to reduce the time required for 
putting in and taking out the piece of work. 

Other devices may be made for better securing the cutting tools, or for 
using a greater number of them. For instance, in turning cone pullevs, the 
ordinary lathe tool block carries but one or, at most, two tools, while it is a 
comparatively simple and economical matter to construct a tool block carry- 
ing as many tools as there are steps to the cone, and turning all of them at once. 
A taper attachment will permit the pulley faces to be properly crowned. 
This suggests a wide field for interesting study and is well worth the best 
work that can be applied to it, and the devices that may be designed for 
almost any kind of product are numerous and valuable if carefully worked out 
by men who are well versed in this class of work. 

Still another method, that of prodding better tools, is a more simple 
question. If the tools are made of the ordinary grades of tool steel much 
greater efficiency can be realized by the use of high-speed steel. Its cost 
may be five or six times that of the ordinary tool steel, but this should not 
prevent its use, since it will be exceedingly economical in any event. The 
tool steel expense may be kept within reasonable limits by the use of tool 
holders for lathes, planers, and similar machines, as they will require only 
short pieces of small square steel as cutters, instead of the cutting portions 
being forged upon the end of a bar weighing many times as much. However, 
for heavy and rough work a solid tool is preferred by many good shop men on 
account of its great rigidity. 

In the use of solid tools, the efficiency of the machine will be much affected 
by the form of the cutting portion of the tool. This will include not only 
the form given it by the tool forger, but the angles to which it is ground. 
To insure the proper treatment of the tool in this respect a good tool grinding 
machine should be used. This machine should be so constructed that tools 
may be rigidly held at the various angles required (which should be shown 
on an index), and uniformly and quickly ground. 

This machine should be located in the tool room, and all tools requiring 
to be ground should be sent there and exchanged for like tools properly ground 
and held in stock ready for issue. This exchange should be made by errand 
boys, who should keep the operators supplied with sharp tools. Operators 
at the machines should not be allowed to grind tools except in rare cases and 
by order of the foreman. 

The arrangement of machines with relation to each other and the trans- 
portation facilities necessary to serve them in an efficient manner is a problem 






INCREASING THE EFFICIENCY OF MACHINES 



335 



that is not often satisfactorily solved. Here again the particular nature 
of the product to be turned out must be taken into consideration and the 
requirements carefully considered and worked out in accordance therewith. 
The product might be large and heavy engine work, which would require a 
certain arrangement of machine in order efficiently and economically to 
carry the parts through the works. Or, it might be machines composed of 
many comparatively light and easily handled parts, which would necessitate 
quite a different array of machines and located upon an entirely different 
plan. Thus we see that the nature of the product will govern, not only the 
selection of proper machines, but the location of these machines in relation 
to each other. Necessarily this latter condition will decide the character 
and location of the transportation facilities necessary. 

A specific example will be given from which general principles may be 
deduced that may be applied to other and quite dissimilar cases. 

Fig. 210 shows the original arrangement of the machines in a depart- 
ment in a manufacturing concern, in which there was a large volume of heavy 



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Fig. 210. — The Original Plan of a Shop Department. 



planing. In the bay at the right of the plan was a group of large planers, 
while those of medium size were located at the rear of the main room, and a 
single small one at A in the bay at the left of the engraving. The main 
group of lathes were placed along the front of the main room, with a sec- 
tion of small ones along the outer or street wall as shown. There ■ was a 
medium-sized lathe at B, and a heavy 68-inch swing lathe at C Also a 
chucking lathe at D, near the right part of the engraving. In the main 



336 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

room were two upright drills near the door N, and along the rear wall near the 
small planers a polishing head at E, a polishing belt at F, and an old-time 
suspension drill at G. Xear the group of small lathes there was a sensitive 
drill at H, a slotter at /, a bolt cutter at L, and a horizontal hydraulic press 
at M. It will thus be seen that many of the machines were apparently located 
at random and with little regard for any definite plan as to their uses or the 
progress of the work. 

In the operation of the shop, castings were received at N, the heavier 
ones put on trucks and taken to the group of large planers, many of them 
brought back to the upright drills, near the door 2V, some taken to the 68- 
inch lathe at C, and then back near the group of large planers to be erected. 
Forgings came in through the door at P, went to the planers in the main 
room, the lathes opposite them, or those in the left bay, then to the hydraulic 
press for force fits, then back to the erecting floor at the opposite end of the 
department. 

Face plates were roughed off on the large planers, carried to 68-inch 
lathes at C to be turned, and, after a more or less wandering career, finally 
arrived at the erecting floor. Dirt and dust from the polishing head at E 
and the belt at F was quite injurious to the machines in the vicinity. Trans- 
portation facilities were crude and the continual moving of material and 
work in progress back and forth was not only expensive, but kept the main 
passage in the center of the room in a constant state of congestion and 
blockade much of the time. 

The plan for re-arranging the shop is shown in Fig. 211, and was as 
follows: The group of large planers, those along the rear walls of the main 
room and the group of large lathes opposite to them were not disturbed. 
The other machines were moved to the locations shown. The left bay was 
practically cleared of machines and made an erecting floor, the lathe B being 
retained for convenience of small jobs during the erecting work. The group 
of lathes were ehminated altogether as they were no longer needed. A polish- 
ing room was built and the machines E and F placed in it, thus confining the 
dust and dirt nuisance in a small space. An overhead traveling crane was 
set up covering the entire space of this bay, giving great convenience for the 
erecting of machines. A small tool room was built and in it was placed a 
tool grinder Q and a twist drill grinder R. A door for the receipt of castings 
at S, and a floor scale were put in. Shop tracks were laid as shown running 
from the door S, across the scale and on to the group of large planers at the 
rear; also, through the center of the main room, from the doors P to N y 
with a turntable at the intersection of these tracks. Branch tracks run 
through the center of the erecting floor to the door X. 

The planer A, formerly in the left bay, was added to the group of planers 



INCREASING THE EFFICIENCY OF MACHINES 



137 



at the back of the main floor, and beyond them the two upright drills were 
placed, and still further beyond the sensitive drill H. Beyond this were 
located the bolt cutter L and the chucking lathe D. A large radial drill was 
added at T } and a vertical boring mill at U. The old-time suspension drill 
at G was replaced by a modern " railroad" drill at V, that is, one over the 
shop track upon which was fitted a special truck for supporting heavy lathe 
beds to be drilled. An ordinary jib crane was set up at W, for the use of 
the planers. 

By this arrangement most of the castings were received at the door S, 
weighed on the scale located there, and then moved on shop cars to the large 



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Fig. 211. — Plan of Department as Re-arranged for Greater Efficiency. 

planers. Beds were scraped and afterwards drilled at V, and sent on shop 
cars to the erecting floor. Work requiring the use of the radial drill or the 
vertical boring mill was handled near the point of receiving castings and 
sent on in the same way. Face plates and spindles were finished on machines 
near each other and forwarded over the same line. Forgings were received 
through the door P and sent over the shop tracks to whatever machines were 
to perform the next operations upon them. Thus nearly all the work, par- 
ticularly all the heavy work, was kept moving in the same direction toward 
the erecting floor, and the finished machines shipped out of the door at X. 

By this arrangement there were no blockades, the cost of transporting 
materials was enormously reduced, and the output of the shop very con- 
siderably increased. An annual outlay of nearly $4000 for handling material 
was reduced to less than one-fourth of that amount and the work of the shop 
ran smoothly and satisfactorily. 



33S MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

The discarding of the six lathes paid for the vertical boring mill and the 
radial drill added, so that there was only the expense of the change from the 
old suspension drill to the railroad drill to add to equipment expenses, other 
than the shop tracks and cars and the two cranes, all of which were made 
in the shop. These were paid for out of the savings in transporting and 
shipping during the first twelve months and quite a balance left on the right 
side of the ledger. 

Such results, or those of similar nature, can nearly always be achieved in 
very many of the older shops by systematic planning of machine operations. 
re-arranging the machines to suit a proper sequence of operations necessary 
for efficient and economical work, and providing proper transportation facil- 
ities. The subject so treated will tend greatly to increase the efficiency of 
the machines. 



CHAPTER XXXIV 

INCREASING THE EFFICIENCY OF MEN 

Many methods for increasing the efficiency of men. Direct and indirect methods. Classifica- 
tion of methods. Special rewards. Personal instruction. Planning machine operations. 
Better machines, attachments, and tools. Better drawings. System of payments. Per- 
sonal interest in the work. Agreeable shop conditions. The Bonus System. The Premium 
Plan. The Piece Work Plan. Requirements for a successful system. Causes of dissatis- 
faction. Shop operation sheets. Selection of Foremen. 

There are many methods by which we may increase the efficiency of 
the men employed in the average manufacturing establishment. These will 
quite naturally fall into one of the two classes as follows, namely: 

First. Methods directly affecting efficiency. 

Second. Methods indirectly affecting efficiency. 

Of methods which may properly be included in the first class, those 
tending directly to increase efficiency, we have: 

(a) By giving him a special reward for performing an amount of good 
work over and above that which has been determined to be a fair day's work. 
This is commonly called "the bonus plan." 

(b) By personal instruction as to the best methods by which the opera- 
tive may handle his work. 

(c) By planning machine operations and describing them clearly upon 
Shop Operation Sheets. 

(d) By providing the operative with better machines, attachments, 
and tools. 

(e) By providing better, clearer, and more easily understood drawings 
than those of former years. 

Of matters and methods which operate indirectly to increase the work- 
man's efficiency the more important will be: 

(a) By adopting a system of payments that is agreeable to him as to 
methods and time intervals. 

(b) By increasing his personal interest in his work. 

(c) By making shop conditions more agreeable to him. 

Referring to direct methods of increasing the efficiency of the workman, 
it may confidently be said that experience has amply proved that the greatest 
incentive to a workman is a special reward for unusual effort in turning out 

339 



340 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

his work. This work is § . v jht to be accomphshed by the Bonus System, the 
Premium Plan, and the Piece Work Plan, etc. Each of these has its essential 
principle, intended more or less be ::~-:erest the workman as well as to benefit 
the concern. 

The work for daily ws ges without regard to the kind of work or the 
amount of the output, is usually monotonous and unsatisfactory to a man 
ambitious to better his condition. He may endeavor, by demonstrating his 
ability and energy, to attract the attention of his superiors and so lead to an 
increase in his pay. In this he is often disappointed, and all the more w3 
he thinks he sees another man getting more pay for less effort and ability. 
The result is liable to be discouragement and a lessening of the output. 

The Piece Work Plan is intended to remedy some of these difricul. 
Sometimes it has done so, but frequently it has only served to aggravate 
them, depending to a considerable extent upon how it was managed. The 
results sought by this plan were: 

First. To reduce the actual cost of the work to the employer. 

Second. To insure a fixed cost which might be used as a basis in cal- 
culating total labor cos: 5 

Thk :.. To lower the amount and therefore the unit cost of supervision 
of the work by providing an incentive to the workman to use greater interest 
and energy in perfor min g it. 

Fourth. To increase the output of the plant. 

Generally speaking, the question of the financial interest of the workman 
has seemed to receive rather slight consideration. The principal thought 
of the employer has appeared to be, at least from the workman's point of 
view, that of reducing the cost per piece to a less figure than it had been 
by the day pay plan, and to assure himself of a fixed price. 

The plan is to have all mechanical work done "by the piece whether 
it was a single operation by hand or machine, the entire work of making a 
single piece, or the making and assembling of a group of parts. As in day 
work the employer furnished even^hing but labor, although occasionally 
the workman furnished such small consumable tools as fil^s. etc. The promise 
held out to the workman was that by a little extra effort he would be enabled 
to add considerably to his wages. 

The success of the piece work plan depended almost entirely upon the 
accuracy with which the piece work rate was deter min ed, and, secondly, on 
how well the rate fixed was adhered to, when the workman's wages were 
increased beyond what the employer thought was reasonable. The usual 
methods were crude and inefficient in comparison with those now in use. 
Generally the rate was based upon the ordinary output of a day's work on 
the day rate plan, and therefore computed by the interested workman him- 



INCREASING THE EFFICIENCY OF MEN 341 

self. "Working for a rate" became the usual comment on a slow man. The 
result was that piece work rates were usually set much too high at the outset. 
This angered the employer, who retaliated by cutting the rate, generally to 
a lower point than it should have been. Then the workman would object 
and threaten to quit. Perhaps the next man "working for a rate" would do 
a fairer day's work, and the employer, remembering his former experience, 
would set the rate so low that even a good man could not make day pay at 
it. The difficulty might be patched up, but the situation was very likely to 
become an armed truce in which each party watched the other suspiciously. 
Friendly relations between the employer and the workmen were destroyed 
and the piece work plan was discredited by both. 

The causes which were contributing factors to this condition appear to 
be as follows: 

First. An improper system, or lack of system, for fixing piece work 
rates. 

Second. The desire of the employer to make the rate as low as possible, 
or at least so that the workman should be able to earn little more than day 
pay, yet to turn out considerably more work. 

Third. The desire of the workman so to manipulate conditions as to 
get as high a rate as possible notwithstanding his past experience that "a 
cut" would follow. All this is wrong in theory and worse in practice. The 
ethics of good business teaches us that no plan of adjusting the differences 
between the employer and the workman will long endure and give satisfac- 
tion that does not equitably provide for the mutual financial benefit of both 
parties without encroaching upon the rights of either. This is no visionary 
theory, but rather a condition that may be realized if proper methods are 
pursued and modern systems made use of. The importance of the ques- 
tion demands the greatest care and consideration in its solution. Like the 
development of all valuable methods and systems, it will cost something, 
although it should not be expensive as compared with the benefits that will 
accrue from it. 

There are three methods for accurately determining equitably the piece 
work rate for the workman. The first method is that described of using the 
output of a workman on a day rate basis. 

The second plan is to have the work done, not by the men who are after- 
ward to do the work at the piece work rate determined, but by two different 
reliable and skilled mechanics, and then to average the results. This makes 
a much fairer, but usually a rather close rate when the work is done by the 
average operator. 

The third plan is to carefully calculate the time of every movement 
in the various operations and to simplify them until every unnecessary waste 



342 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

of time is carefully eliminated. This is called a "Time Study," and its final 
determinations are then incorporated in a "Shop Operation Sheet," which 
is used as a guide by the mechanic who does the work. This is really an 
equitable plan and perfectly fair for both sides, and both the employer and 
the workman must admit it to be the only scientific plan yet devised for such 
work. 

By the use of the second plan the tendency is to attract to each class of 
work the men best fitted for the job. A good man will increase his output 
from 30 to 50 per cent, when working with the same machine and tools that 
he would use in day work. He will also perfect his methods and probably 
improve his tools somewhat, if he is assured against a cut in the rate, if by 
his ingenuity, ability, and energy he exceeds the expectations of the official 
who fixes the rate. He should be permitted to increase his output 50 per 
cent if he can do so and still produce good work. 

It may seem easy to avoid the dissatisfaction over cutting rates by 
first setting a rate low and then raising it gradually until the proper point 
is reached, since workmen never object to the rate being raised. There are, 
however, valid objections to this method. Days and sometimes weeks will 
be spent in acquiring the data for these adjustments on a single piece, and 
the larger the number of different pieces handled the greater will be the time 
required and expense incurred. Other considerations will also enter into 
the matter. For instance, the overhead or general expenses, and the hourly 
rates upon machines, both of which will be seriously affected by the fluctua- 
tions of the output of the machines. The fact should not be lost sight of that 
any plan which tends to increase the output of machines, even while in- 
creasing the pay roll considerably, is usually more than counterbalanced by 
the lowering of the overhead expenses as considered pro rata with the value 
of the product. 

The matter of accurately and intelligently fixing the price or a fair rate 
of machine operations is entirely practicable. Let us assume that we have 
a lot of cast iron chuck plates to finish in an ordinary engine lathe. This is 
taken as an example of an easy and simple job for illustration. In Fig. 212 
is shown the sixteen different operations, and for purposes of analysis the 
chucking and mounting; in fact, each step up to the final removing of the 
piece from the lathe. To obtain a proper rate for this work it will be put 
in the hands of a fairly good workman and the time occupied in performing 
each operation will be noted by a time-study man, who observes the work, 
watch in hand, and notes the elapsed time. Being expert at this duty he will 
know if there is any unnecessary loss of time, and if he is not satisfied with 
the progress of the work, he will require the set of operations to be performed 
a second time. This will give a fair and accurate account of the elapsed time, 



INCREASING THE EFFICIENCY OF MEN 



343 




l 



Chucking by the Hub 





2 ^ 3 

Facing Front of Flange Turning Flange 




X 



Chucking by the Flange 





1 





Turning Hub Facing Back of Flange Facing Hub Roughing out Hole 




9 10 11 12 

Reaming Hole Counterboring Hole Reaming Coun+erbore Cutting Thread 





W 



D^Z.~ 






13 14 15 16 

Size Tapping Hole Mounting on Spindle Facing Flange Turning Flange 

Fig. 212. — Consecutive Operations in Machining a Chuck Plate. 



344 



MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 



which may be safely used in calculating the piece work rate. These con- 
clusions may be checked by having the operations performed by a second 
man and the time averaged as between the two. 

Many of these operations can be calculated without the work being 
actually performed. For instance: turning cast iron, using tools of high- 
speed or self-hardening steel, may be done at a speed of 50 to 60 feet per 
minute, and a feed, on a roughing cut of 8 or 10 revolutions per inch, and 
on a finishing cut 15 to 25 per inch. In Fig. 212 roughing and finishing cuts 
are not shown separately, but it is to be understood that both are included, 
and that sometimes three cuts may be necessary, namely, roughing, sizing, 
and finishing. 

As usually arranged, the results of a time study consisting of a series of 
operations is recorded upon a card of the form shown in Fig. 213. In this 



No. TIME STUDY CARD Date 


Part 
No. 


Part 
Name 


Machine 


Man 
No. 


Man 

Name 


Dept. '■ 


Machine 
No. 


Machine 
Name 


Dept. 


Op. 
No. 


TIME 


SUMMARY 


Set up 


Set Tools 


Cut 


Remove 


Total 


1 












Total Time 


Z 












Man Rate 


3 












Man Subcharge 


4 












Machine Rate 


5 














6 














7 














8 












Total Cost 


Time Study 
Made By 


Approved 

By 



Fig. 213.— The Time Study Card. 

case the several parts of the operation are given for purposes of analysis. 
Thus we have the serial number of the operation, the time required to set 
up the job, to set the tools, to make the cuts, to remove the piece, and then 
to give the total time. These times are given in minutes and fractions, 
either seconds or quarter-minute periods. The best practice is in minutes 
and seconds, since some of the periods will be very short, and, if accurate 
calculations are required, quarter minutes are not sufficiently close. 

When the proper time has been arrived at the operator is given the 
work together with the Piece Work Card shown in Fig. 214, which has the 
upper third portion completely filled out with the information required. 
At the center of the card is specified the quantity and description of the 
operation and the rate, and below is given the Standard Time, as "5 hours 
and 10 minutes per 100 pieces," or "time per piece 3.1 minutes" or "3 minutes 



INCREASING THE EFFICIENCY OF MEN 



345 



and 6 seconds each." The actual time is similarly filled in below when the 
work is finished, and the amount earned is entered on the central portion of 
the card. The card having been signed by the inspector after he has in- 
spected the work, and approved by the foreman, becomes the authority for 
payment. 

This method may seem unnecessarily intricate "and exact, but if we con- 
sider the importance of a system that shall inaugurate and maintain a clear 
and fair understanding between the employer and his workmen on the sub- 
ject of piece work, and the immense value there is in the system that will 
produce a good quality of work and a largely increased output, it will be found 
that the time and the money spent in organizing such a system and carrying 



Order No.- P 1 ECE WORK CARD Date 


Part 
No. 


Part 
Name 


Machine 


Man 
No. 


Man 
Name 


Dep+. 


Machine 
No. 


Machine 
Name 


Dept. 


Quantity 


OPERATION 


Rate 


Amount 


No. 


Name 


































































































Inspected 
By 


Approved 
By 



Fig. 214. — The Piece Work Card. 

it on as a part of the regular routine of the establishment, will be the most 
economical and productive investment made in and about the plant. 

The use of Shop Operation Sheets consists in providing sheets for 
the use of the workmen upon which is a drawing of the piece to be machined, 
a detailed description of each operation to be performed, and describing the 
tools, jigs, and fixtures to be used; the machine upon which the work is to 
be done; and giving the number of the drawing or blue print upon which the 
dimensions can be found. A sample form is shown in Fig. 215. These opera- 
tion sheets are usually made from a printed blank on bond paper. The 
drawing is made by hand and the blank portions filled in on a typewriter, 
after which as many blue prints as may be necessary are made. The finished 
dimensions may be given on the drawing at the top, so as to avoid the neces- 
sity of referring to the sheet of detail drawings containing the piece to be 
machined. 

It will be readily seen that these operation sheets are an important 



346 



MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 



factor in increasing the efficiency of the machine, although they are really 
intended for the better and more prompt instruction of the operator; and 





PART BELL CRANK NO. B 35 MACHINE B TYPE 14 


Material Cast Iron Date Compiled Nov. 20, 1916. 


OPE RATION 


TOOLS AND FIXTURES 


MACHINE 


DRAW1N6 


NO. 


NAME 


1 










2 










3 










4 










5 










6 










7 










8 










9 










10 











Fig. 215. — The Shop Operation Sheet. 

having them at hand is of much assistance, not only in securing the proper 
sequence of operations, but in the rapidity with which the changes from one 
operation to another can be made. At the same time they give confidence 
and support to the operator in his work. 



INCREASING THE EFFICIENCY OF MEN 347 

In the use of these sheets and the handling of all new tools, jigs, and 
fixtures the efficiency of the men will be greatly increased by the presence 
and advice of a trained and expert instructor, who spends considerable time 
in investigating and recording much detailed information which is exceed- 
ingly useful in handling the work economically and efficiently. 

There are some other aids to increasing the efficiency of the workmen. 
Managing officials should endeavor to provide good, agreeable, and sanitary 
conditions among which may be mentioned : plenty of light, natural or artifi- 
cial; shops comfortably warm in winter, and always well ventilated; good 
sanitary arrangements, ample and clean lavatories and individual lockers for 
the workmen; as high-grade associates or "shop mates" as the character of 
the work demands. The system of payments should be convenient. Most 
state laws require weekly payments. The practice of " holding over" two 
or three days' pay should not be in use. Special rewards or bonus pay- 
ment for special effort should be promptly made, accompanying the weekly 
payment, if possible, and certainly not deferred for more than a week. 

The selection of a class of foremen who understand human nature and 
have the ability to study men as well as conditions and adapt their methods 
of discipline to the personal characteristics of the men, so as to hold their 
esteem and respect and increase their personal interest in the work they do 
from day to day. To be really leaders and not drivers of the working force. 
Experience shows that all these matters make for success in shop administra- 
tion and should be carefully studied and made use of as occasion may require. 



CHAPTER XXXV 

THE RELATION OE THE OVERHEAD BURDEN TO THE TLAT COST 

The overhead burden. Complex problems. Operating expenses. Classification of accounts. 
A •' going concern." Fixed charges. The expense burden. The supplemental burden. 
Apportioning the overhead burden to the flat cost. Labor cost. Material cost. Ad- 
rninistrative expenses. Selling expenses. Profit. Component factors. The hourly plan. 
Its defects. The percentage plan. Its fallacies. A comprehensive view. Productive 
and non-productive labor. Cost of power. Machine rate. Man rate. Floor rate. Idle 
machines. Good effects. 

That bugbear of all accountants "the overhead burden" is one of the 
most potent factors in the problem of cost accounting and one which requires 
the most careful consideration and expert analysis. Still the problems of 
cost accounting in manufacturing operations are many and various. Often 
those which at first appear to be simple and readily solved prove to be ex- 
ceedingly perplexing and difficult to satisfactorily handle. 

Probably the one point upon which there is the greatest amount of 
disagreement and perplexing argument is that of the proper handling of the 
overhead burden or overhead charges, or, as variously called, the " fixed 
charges,'' "the expense burden," or the ''expense account," and of the pro- 
portioning or prorating it by some equitable method over the product turned 
out by the plant, so that each job or each order shall bear its fair share of 
the burden of the general expense of the manufacturing departments of the 
concern. 

Realizing the immense importance and the far-reaching results of a 
proper and accurate handling of this matter of overhead burden in the routine 
of manufacturing operations, and the possibility of great losses due to care- 
lessness, or a lack of appreciation of the importance of the subject, manu- 
facturing experts, factor}' managers, engineers, and accountants have devoted 
much time to the investigation and study of the problems growing out of 
the conditions which practical experience has evolved. 

Those problems which at one time seemed to the expert in accounting 
to offer trifling obstacles to their ready and accurate solution, have been con- 
scientiously studied from various points of view and under a great variety 
of circumstances and conditions, their real value and importance understood, 
and deductions have been made for their proper solution. But new condi- 

34S 



RELATION OF OVERHEAD BURDEN TO FLAT COST 349 

tions and new facts continually confront the engineer and the accountant at 
each succeeding investigation of the manufacturing operations of a new 
plant, until the field for profitable examination and study seems to be almost 
limitless. 

It is a generally recognized fact that each manufacturing plant is unique 
in itself and always possesses some features distinctly different from any of 
those hitherto examined and which must be handled in accordance with 
these local conditions. Among all the problems in this complex question, that 
which concerns the proper and equitable distribution of the overhead burden 
of a manufacturing plant will be found to be beset with more varying condi- 
tions and be subject to more diversified opinions than all others which relate 
to the question of shop and factory accounting. 

In this consideration of the question of apportioning the overhead bur- 
den to the flat cost we shall eliminate entirely the question of administrative 
expenses of the general office and also the cost of advertising and selling the 
product, limiting the detailed consideration to the manufacturing depart- 
ments of the plant, and an examination of their expenses for productive 
and non-productive labor, fixed and varying overhead charges, and the cost 
of material. 

With any sort of a common-sense system of bookkeeping it is not a par- 
ticularly difficult matter to ascertain the total amount paid out for the general 
expenses of the concern, since these will include all operating expenses except 
those for productive labor and material. But just here enters one of those 
questions that frequently give trouble in the solution of these problems, and 
usually when least expected. 

What are operating expenses? Clearly, those expenses demanded by 
the daily routine of manufacturing operations. True. But in the regular 
work of operating the plant there must be purchased, or made, tools for hand 
use, tools to be used in the machines, attachments to be used on the machines, 
and even new machines, and all of which are necessary for the economical 
machining of the product. What portion of these shall be charged to 
general expense? Naturally a part of these expenses will be charged to 
equipment. Here accountants, particularly those who have been used 
to the older methods, will disagree. Jigs and fixtures are required, for 
which drawings and patterns, as well as the fixtures themselves, must be 
made. Shall these be charged to the expense account, or shall the entire 
cost of making these accessories go into the equipment account along with 
the machines which they help to render economically operative? 

A prominent author in discussing this matter has said that all drawings, 
patterns, tools, jigs, and fixtures should be charged to the expense account 
because "to the purely commercial mind, taking nothing on chances, the 



35o MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

forced value must appear to be the only proper value to be given to the factory 
plant in the accounts." Further the same author concludes that, "in the 
case of a forced sale, drawings, patterns, and special factory tools are found 
to be absolutely without buyers. To the mechanical mind it seems preposter- 
ous to write all costs of these highly prized shop treasures directly into the 
expense account." 

In this connection it should be said that to the practical business man 
endowed with mechanical as well as commercial ideas the " going concern" 
with all its machines and tools, regular and special, in use at their highest 
efficiency, is his aim and ambition, and he is very likely to reckon on that 
basis, rather than to have ever before his mental vision the shadow of the 
auctioneer and the sheriff. 

It is certain that men will make mistakes in judgment of business condi- 
tions and that losses will ensue. But not more in manufacturing enterprises 
than in any other line of business. The stock broker, for instance, conducts 
a business with much more liability to loss through depreciation, as well as 
from other conditions, but his accountant does not enter securities at their 
forced sale value. 

Therefore it seems fair to consider the manufacturing plant in the light 
of a live, going concern, with the usual prospects for good business. Its 
operations are directed by a man who possesses a natural ability for judging 
commercial opportunities and business conditions, and at least a fair amount 
of appreciation of the value and excellence of good original designing as well 
as of the fact that the development and evolution of mechanical operations 
require the adoption of improvements from time to time in order to keep 
pace with legitimate competition. 

Adopting this view we find that the overhead charges will consist of 
three factors, which may be summed up as follows: 

Fixed Charges, covering interest upon the cost of the land, buildings, 
fixtures, power, fighting, heating, and transportation plants; insurance, taxes, 
water rates, etc. ; the cost of maintenance and the depreciation of valuation. 

The Expense Burden, including the cost of so-called non-productive 
labor, cost of lighting, heating, ventilating, cleaning, transporting material, 
the interest upon the cost and installation, and the depreciation charge upon 
machines. 

The Supplemental Burden will be the cost of the temporarily idle ma- 
chines, which, with the exception of the cost of power, cost as much as when 
working at full efficiency upon useful product. 

The Overhead Burden will be the sum of the above three accounts, 
although the method of bringing them into the burden account varies with 
their individual characteristics. 



RELATION OF OVERHEAD BURDEN TO FLAT COST 351 

Our problem is the proper apportioning of these charges to the Flat 
Cost of the product. What is the flat cost of the product? We may analyze 
the various factors and classify them as factors in manufacturing costs, in 
the following manner, without going back to the elementary accounts by 
which these factors are determined. The different classes of accounts or 
costs with which we have to deal will be : 

Labor Cost. The amounts paid for productive or direct labor, that is, 
labor applied directly to the product, whether for operations on a machine 
or by hand. 

Material Cost. The expense of all material that goes directly into the 
product and becomes a part of it. 

Overhead Burden, which is composed as above explained. There will 
also be the following accounts taken incidentally into the progressive arrange- 
ment that follows. 

Administrative Expenses. This will include the expenses of the general 
office, including salaries, interest, insurance, and maintenance of real estate, 
office fixtures, etc., and the cost of office supplies, including telegraph, tel- 
ephone, express, postage, legal, traveling, and similar expenses; but not 
including any of these items in the sales department. 

Selling Expenses. The same list of expenses as are given for the general 
office, to which are added the expenses for advertising, commissions, allow- 
ances, discounts and similar expenses incidental to marketing the product. 

The Profit is such a percentage of the manufacturing cost as the manage- 
ment may determine and the state of the market may permit. 

The Component Factors. To apply these factors in their relative and 
progressive relations we will have : 

1. The Flat Cost consists of: 

The Labor Cost, 
The Material Cost. 

2. The Factory Cost consists of: 

The Flat Cost, 

The Overhead Burden. 

3. The Manufacturing Cost consists of: 

The Factory Cost, 

The Administrative Expense. 

4. The Market Price consists of: 

The Manufacturing Cost, 
The Selling Expenses, 
The Profit. 
For ascertaining the proper relation between the flat cost and the over- 
head burden a number of well considered and practical plans have been 



352 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

proposed, all of them having some merits deserving careful consideration. 
The two principally used, with some variations to suit local and individual 
conditions, have been as follows: 

First. The Hourly Plan. By this method there is charged to each job or 
order a percentage of the total amount of overhead burden in proportion 
to the number of hours of direct or productive labor. This is found by divid- 
ing the total overhead burden by the total number of hours of productive 
labor worked for a given period, say three or six months, or a year, thus ob- 
taining an hourly rate which may be added to each hour of productive labor 
on the job or order, in addition to the cost of material, to ascertain the flat 
cost of the job. 

The plan is defective for the following reasons. It places all classes of 
labor, whether skilled or unskilled, and whether working with a few hand 
tools or with an expensive machine, on a level. By this method a job done 
largely on machines would not bear its fair share, while a job done by hand 
at the bench would be assessed with an amount far in excess of its proper 
burden. 

Again, if two men receive the same wages, one of them operating a small 
lathe and the other a large planer, the burden charged for an hour's work 
would be the same for the small lathe as it would be for the large and expen- 
sive planer. In actual practice this problem will appear in this manner. 
Consider a job done on the small lathe 

Machine rate 15 cents per hour. 

Wages of man 40 cents per hour. 

Total 55 cents per hour or, 

on a basis of 8 hours per day, $28.80. 

In the case of the job done on the large planer: 

Machine rate 45 cents per hour. 

Man rate 40 cents per hour. 

Total 85 cents per hour, or 

on a basis of 8 hours per day, $40.80. 

By the above "hourly plan," or averaging plan, each job would be charged 
on a basis of $19.20; one job would be charged $6. more than is equitable, 
while the other would be charged with $6. less than it should pay. The 
defects of the plan are thus glaringly apparent. Of course not all jobs will 
show as great a discrepancy as these, but the fallacy is only one of degree, 
and the principle will remain the same in all cases. 

Thus we see that this averaging process of dividing the burden must 
necessarily result in an overcharge on small work and an under charge on 
large work. To work with any reasonable degree of accuracy and equity it 



RELATION OF OVERHEAD BURDEN TO FLAT COST 353 

would require that the employees be on a near equality as to wages and the 
work done on machines of nearly equal cost, occupying the same area of 
floor space and absorbing an equal amount of power. These conditions 
will seldom be encountered over an entire factory and never in a 
machine shop. 

Second. The Percentage Plan. This plan assesses the overhead burden 
on a basis of the cost of direct, or productive labor on each job or order. 
In this case the total overhead burden is divided by the total amount paid 
for direct labor for a given period, as previously explained, and, using this 
quotient as a percentage of burdens, it is to be added to the cost of direct 
or productive labor and material on each job. 

One of the fallacies of this plan is that it takes no account of the very 
important factor of time. For instance, if a low-priced man occupies twice 
the time in doing a job on a certain machine, as a man getting double the 
pay (which is by no means an unusual case), it naturally follows that while 
the cost of direct labor has been the same, the cheap man has occupied the 
machine twice as long, and yet the overhead charge has been the same. 

The actual result with a properly fixed machine rate, as in the last case, 
will be as follows : 

In the case of the low-priced man: 

Machine rate, 2 hours at 30 cents 60 cents. 

Wages of man, 2 hours at 25 cents 50 cents. 

Total . $1.10 

In the case of the high-priced man: 

Machine rate, 1 hour 30 cents. 

Wages of man, 1 hour 50 cents. 

Total 80 cents. 

By this it will be seen that the job will actually cost 37J per cent more 
when done by the low-priced man than if done by the high-priced man, which 
is in line with the usual experience of machine shop work requiring more or 
less skill. If the percentage plan is used, the cost would be the same, but 
there would be this very important difference in this practical question. The 
output per day or week would be reduced 50 per cent, which is a very im- 
portant phase of the matter, and to recover this 50 per cent under the 
low-priced man condition we must double the machine equipment. 

Therefore the plan of accounting is manifestly wrong, and might easily 
make a great deal of difference in the correctness of the resulting accounts, 
particularly in a shop where there is a great diversity in the cost of the ma- 
chines in use. In fact, it might render the method useless, so far as giving 
accurate, or even uniform, results is concerned. 



354 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

A competent authority thus comments on these two plans. "The 
most unsatisfactory feature of both plans is that they make no provision 
for charging against a piece of work the interest and depreciation belonging 
to the machine on which the work is done. Both plans add the gross interest 
and depreciation to the other items of shop expense and then charge the 
total amount against the work on a flat rate or average basis which ignores 
the individual machines. On small and medium sized machines the interest 
and depreciation item is of small importance, but on the large ones it is the 
most important of any, and, indeed, on very large ones more important than 
all the others added together." 

While the time or hourly plan corrects some of the defects of the plan 
of percentage of burden to the cost of labor plan, it brings in quite as erroneous 
ones of its own. It takes no cognizance of the value of the machines used, 
whether they cost a hundred dollars or several thousands, and a speed lathe 
might be assessed with just as much burden as a 72-inch planer. 

Again, a boy earning seven dollars a week would count for as much as a 
machinist getting four dollars per day, so far as overhead charges are con- 
cerned. This plan would work many glaring errors, particularly in a manu- 
factory having a large variety of machines, and where the work ranges from 
comparatively small to quite large and heavy parts. In a manufactory in 
which the work is quite uniform and the machines upon which it is done are 
nearly of the same first cost, and where the wages of the operatives do not 
vary to any considerable extent, either of the above plans may answer all 
reasonable requirements. 

However, if we carefully consider the questions, we shall be forced to the 
conclusions that where these conditions do not prevail we must look for 
some more comprehensive plan that, while necessarily more intricate and 
difficult to administer, will give with a reasonable degree of accuracy the 
actual costs of products, and enable us to know in what department profits 
and losses occur, and what product, department, or individuals are responsi- 
ble for the one condition or the other. 

To do this we must take a comprehensive view of the questions involved 
and not content ourselves with the idea that all the factors in the case are 
considered at their proper value when we say that "we have labor, so much; 
material, so much; and general expenses, so much; and the sum of these is 
the total cost." As to total amounts this may be perfectly correct, but it is 
detailed information that we want. We know that the total is so much, 
but why is it such a large amount? To answer this question we must analyze 
this expense and ascertain what are its component factors. 

Neither can we consider in lump sum such expenses as interest, insurance, 
depreciation, and similar burdens, since some of these will enter into plant 



RELATION OF OVERHEAD BURDEN JO FLAT COST 355 

accounts, some into equipment accounts, and some will be chargeable to 
the labor account. It is true that all expenses for interest, insurance, de- 
preciation, etc., must eventually be borne as part of the cost of the product, 
but the time and the method of taking them into the account are matters 
to be carefully considered if we are to avail ourselves of the opportunities 
which this operation presents to record and make use of the valuable detailed 
information that may be derived from the procedure at this stage of ac- 
counting. 

We must know the details of this matter, for what purpose the money 
was spent, and to what accounts it must be charged in order to obtain a 
control over these expenses which will be of value in our effort to reduce them 
to an economical basis. To obtain this detailed information we must go 
back to the origin of the various matters which occasioned the several items 
of expense. 

We have men and machines. We must have buildings to house them 
and consequently land upon which to erect these buildings. These buildings 
must be lighted and heated. We must provide for the transportation of 
stock and materials. There must be an equipment for fire protection. These 
costs will all be subject to 5 per cent interest charge. Another 5 per cent 
for depreciation, and the cost of maintenance and fire insurance. Lighting 
and heating must be provided for in a similar manner, and subject to like 
charges, except insurance. 

There will also be the wages of all non-productive employees, such as 
the shop superintendent and his office force, foremen, tool keepers, watch- 
men, sweepers, carpenters, engineers, firemen, inspectors, laborers, and all 
others who do not work directly on the product of the concern. The sum 
of all these items divided by the floor area in square feet will give us a factor 
called " floor rate," which we can use as one of the components in determining 
the rates'for machines and men. 

The cost of power will include the percentage on first cost of the equip- 
ment for that purpose and its installation; its depreciation; its maintenance 
and operating expense of labor, fuel, and supplies. From the horse power 
generated we obtain the cost of power per horse power hour. This is done by 
dividing the entire expense of generating power by the total horse power gen- 
erated, say for a year, and dividing this by the working hours for a year, 
now assumed to be 2500. 

We obtain an hourly rate for a machine by the use of the following fac- 
tors, viz.: (a) 5 per cent interest and 5 per cent depreciation on its cost 
and the cost of its installation; (b) the cost of its maintenance; (c) the cost 
of insurance; (d) floor rate, calculated as the number of square feet actually 
occupied by it and the space necessary to handle the work to be done upon 



356 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

it; and (e) the cost of power, ascertaining the power required and using 
the cost per horse power hour. 

In assessing the value of machines for the purpose of obtaining a machine 
rate, it is not necessary to assess them separately at their actual cost. The 
results may be obtained with sufficient accuracy by dividing them into classes, 
commencing with class A, including all machines costing less than $500; 
class B, those costing from $500 to $1000; class C, $1000 to $1500; and so on. 
This method will not affect adversely the value of the results. 

The man rate we obtain by (a) assessing pro rata to the men all the floor 
space not occupied by or assigned to the machines. While this varies widely 
in different shops, it is an important matter for two reasons. First, it costs 
as much, with the exception of the charge for power and repairs for an idle 
machine as for one working at its full capacity. Second, the idle machines ' 
are usually the larger and higher priced machines, and therefore the most 
necessary to look out for on the score of economy. 

Each machine should be numbered in large, plain figures in some con- 
spicuous place. The cost clerk should have a book in which he records the 
number, machine rate, and a record of its idle and running time. The latter 
record he will obtain from the time cards, which should always give the 
machine number as well as the man number on every job done upon a ma- 
chine. The idle machine record will be made up once a month, and the 
sum of the hourly rate of all idle machines during the month prorated over 
the entire number of machines, increasing their rates by the amounts thus 
ascertained for the following month. 

In cases where the fluctuations in this account are slight, longer periods 
may be used, say three or six months. However, the prime object of this 
account is not so much to ascertain and account for the exact amount of 
the machine rate to the fraction of a cent per hour, although that is valuable 
so as to keep the record of idle machines for administrative purposes and 
as an indication of machine efficiency and shop discipline, in which capacity 
the information derived is of much use to the superintendent and factory 
manager. 

By this method we shall frequently ascertain that there are machines in 
the shops that are adapted to some special work only, and that are idle for 
such a large portion of the time that they are extremely unprofitable, or that 
entail such a positive loss that they should be sold, or replaced by other 
machines better adapted for the work. 

To earn' this idea a little further and to effect still greater good results, 
the record of machines should be separated into an account for each depart- 
ment. This will bring the matter home to the head of the department. It 
will exhibit the relative machine efficiency of the different departments. If 



RELATION OF OVERHEAD BURDEN TO FLAT COST 357 

we can show a foreman that his machine rates, and hence his costs, are being 
materially increased by several machines being habitually idle, he will either 
get busy in finding profitable work for the machines or getting rid of them 
altogether. 

Frequently a machine that is idle much of the time in one department 
may be transferred to another department where it may be profitably em- 
ployed. This fact, being demonstrated, will be of value in bringing the 
foremen together in discussing these matters and the foreman who has more 
work of a certain kind than he has machines to do it with will be alert to find 
another foreman who has such a machine and not enough work to keep it 
occupied. An exchange will be effected that will be a saving in idle machine 
rates to one department and an increase in the machine capacity of the other, 
and consequently a matter of considerable value to the plant in a general 
way. 

Usually such good results will be automatically brought about without 
the intervention of the superintendent or controlling authority. There will 
be the continual tendency to keep the foreman alert to a higher plane of 
machine efficiency for the entire plant. 



CHAPTER XXXYI 

30^~UTACTTEXS"G COST SYSTEMS 

:rii. I ■:•: .— - - : - : : in : ihop men A growth but not a system.. Reqn_r z - 

- - - i delation between die cost 
Whj.: is in iccnri.:c ::::._i::_i; ::: manufacturing 



cqperafcnans? Meal state Power Lighting. Hea:iz.z :i : : .:_i:>: z: :. :z. Tools and 
zirzrri Mi;=-nals .":;:-:::<_- :-.. ~r _i.:«:: -i:;:. ;z_:r .J:;_Lt ;ir j_"i.l :i:e. 
Ba HiEmdJiv^: Eafoac Safes cJepaartnnent. The varawta forms of carders. Pi irders. 

In— ng h_:-t"__ Ena;igvra;±Lg l :csi y\r-~ Zarrril ::.z:z::.:: :: :;i:_ .;ii md 
:::.j-:t mav "sis leccssiry :.: ^iczess 

Thzlz should be no argument as to the necessity of a well formulated 
and i : vara :e system : : : i rrta fnfng the actual costs of the product, includri * 
ev^y item ::' tm enditure that may have been incurred directly in toiling 
:: :a: nmiletely aaaisiaea aai :-::;' :':: :ii:zir_: 

Yet if we examine the so-called cost systems in many manufacturing 
t5". icasamems :: the present day, we shall rind that what is by courtesy 
caled a cost system has grovm : :_e old-time methods of commercial 

, to which has been added from time to time a plan, a card, or 
ebs detail cr that; the method having been arranged sometim7 5 
one man and sometimes by another, with no general plan to guide and 
iirect these ie:aai natters 7.1.5 a i ietatl is i natter :: 5.:;; — :ra. i shit 
man is like? : irrange it from a shop man's point of view without much 
regard to its effect upon the co mme rcial accounts or the office methods of 
±r :::::;: 

In i similar manner, if the matter should come to the attention of the , 
m::::: r_e is akely t: set a bookkeeper to devise a plan, and he. :em prone 
:.: vie— :iie natter :rom the bocm::::: 5 position without regard to the 
siett: :■.:- aitt:a —aim may eatect :r — aim may :e tttettea :y i: ~Z :m-e:e 
some plan entirely at variance with good shop practice. 

Tatrefire the — :rk :: tttemetea ::st -:::.e:e: ae::mes i titme :: 
sitae is md patches, a grown net not a system in any proper sees 7 : :ne 
word. Moch of the wedk. is duplicated, and there .5 very liable to be a maxf- 
.. em . : tatpense and a mmf-mum of efficiency The information gained under 
5 . .- a : 75 m I by such methods is of an uncertain character and : : 

no great Tame in deternnoing actual facts in relation to the conditions of the 



MANUFACTURING COST SYSTEMS 359 

business. The effect on the management and efficiency of the shop is rather 
to discourage honest effort toward better conditions than to be any incentive 
to increasing the output or raising its standard. 

An efficient cost system should work to the advantage of both the shop 
and the office. In fact, it ought to have a beneficial effect upon the sales 
department as well, thus increasing the efficiency of the administrative, the 
manufacturing, and the selling of the product. 

The requirements of a good cost system are quite definite and important 
in the management of a manufacturing enterprise as well as in the duty of 
accurately accounting for the cost of the work. The most prominent of these 
requirements are as follows: 

First. To give, within a reasonable time after the work is completed, 
the actual and complete costs, including every item of expense to the owner- 
ship of the plant, of the operation of the plant as a whole; of the operations 
of each department of the plant; of the costs of each operation, and the 
cost of each machine part; of the cost of assembling the groups of related 
parts; of the cost of erecting the completed machine; of finishing, testing, 
and shipping it; and the cost of advertising, and selling, or marketing the 
product. 

Second. It should tend to the closest economy in the purchase of all 
material, and in the care, issue, accounting for, and the use of it. 

Third. It should secure the greatest economy of the wages paid for 
labor, not through lowering wages, but through increasing the efficiency of 
the workmen by accurately accounting for their work and providing for 
special remuneration for special individual effort and efficiency. 

Fourth. To decrease the cost of all manufacturing operations through 
accurate records of past and present performances, and their logical analysis 
and comparison, by which improved methods may be formulated and the 
efficiency of men and machines secured. 

Fifth. To increase the volume of output of the concern by means of 
the economies mentioned in the last paragraph, whereby the increase of 
efficiency, the shortening of the time necessary to do the work, and the de- 
crease of costs have combined to largely increase the producing capacity 
of the plant. 

Sixth. To increase the profits of the concern, by reason of the fact that 
costs of all parts of the work having been accurately determined, correct 
estimates may be given with confidence, and closer figures may be made 
upon proposed work than is possible with a rival firm not so accurately in- 
formed as to costs; whereby the concern stands upon a better basis in getting 
new business. Losses are also avoided, as an accurate knowledge of costs 
shows the manager what works to avoid as unprofitable. 



360 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

The cost system must not only show a correct record of all manu- 
facturing operations and all fluctuations of costs, but it must show why 
these fluctuations have occurred and fix the responsibility, first, upon the 
proper department, and, second, upon the official or individual who may 
be held responsible. 

There is a close relation between the cost system, the shop methods, and 
the commercial accounts. It should be thoroughly understood that the cost 
system and the shop methods must not only work in harmony with each 
other, but, also, with the general accounting system of the concern, so that 
each may assist and support the other in attaining that success which comes 
from the union of effort on the part of all concerned. 

While some of the results here enumerated are not, strictly speaking, 
within the province of the cost system, and belong more particularly to the 
work of shop management, these two branches of the work are so interwoven 
with each other that it is not practicable to discuss the one without including 
more or less of the other. 

In inaugurating a cost system there are certain calculations to be made 
as to the fixed charges or expenses that are of the utmost importance, and 
without which it is impossible to formulate a complete or accurate system of 
cost accounting. It is not sufficient to say that there are com m ercial costs 
with which the manufacturing department have nothing to do, but which 
will be properly taken care of by the bookkeepers. It is not possible to 
obtain accurate costs of manufacturing operations, and properly distributed 
as co mm ercial charges after the product is turned out. 

Interest, taxes, insurance, and like charges are as properly a part of the 
cost of manuiaci^iring as the wages of the workmen or the cost of material. 

Machines vary greatly in first cost, hence there is much difference in 
interest charges. They also vary in a similar degree as to power to drive 
them and the cost to house them, hence in the real estate and similar charges 
properly assessed against their operation and output. 

There are many other and equally good reasons why all these expenses 
should be taken into the accounts of manufacturing operations at the earliest 
possible moment. 

By accurate accounting for manufacturing operations is not meant simply 
all the expenses of a department as compared with all the output of that 
department. Costs should be in detail and not only cover an order for a 
machine, but the cost of its several parts, and if a portion of a regular pro- 
duction order, we should have the costs of the different operations on the 
parts, and also the cost of assembling the groups of related parts and that 
of erection, finishing, and testing the machine or device. Therefore we must 
arrange the plan of the general accounts and work out the necessary calcula- 



MANUFACTURING COST SYSTEMS 361 

tions before entering upon the detailed work of the plan. The classification 
of accounts and the methods of using them will be as follows, namely: 

First. Real Estate, (a) Interest, 5 per cent on the cost of the land and 
preparing it for the buildings, and on the cost of the buildings and the fire 
equipment for them; (b) Depreciation of real estate, unless the charge is 
balanced by the appreciated value of the land; (c) Maintenance and renewal 
of buildings; (d) Fire insurance and taxes. 

The sum of these expenses for a year is divided by the number of square 
feet of floor surface of the entire plant. This gives a burden per square foot 
per year. It is reduced to an hourly rate by dividing it by 2500. 

Second. Power, (a) Interest, 5 per cent on the cost of equipment for 
power generation and transmission, and its installation; (b) Depreciation, 5 
per cent; (c) Maintenance and renewals; (d) Fire and boiler insurance; 
(e) Floor rate of boiler and engine rooms as ascertained in first paragraph; 
(/) Cost of fuel, water, and supplies; (g) Wages of engineer and fireman. 

The sum of these expenses for a year divided by the horse power generated, 
and this amount by 2500, gives the cost per horse power hour. 

Third. Lighting, (a) Interest, 5 per cent on equipment and its in- 
stallation; (b) Depreciation, 6 per cent; (c) Maintenance and renewals; (d) 
Power, charged per horse power hour as in the second paragraph; (e) 
Supplies, wages of electrician, etc. 

The sum of these expenses for a year divided by the number of lights, 
on the basis of incandescent lamps (allowing 10 incandescent lamps as equal 
to one arc lamp), and dividing this amount by the number of hours of lighting 
during the year, will give a cost of maintaining each light. With this factor 
the cost of lighting any and all departments is readily computed. As there 
will be considerable variation from month to month, this account should be 
made up monthly. 

Fourth. Heating, (a) Interest, 5 per cent on the cost of equipment 
and its installation; (6) Depreciation, 6 per cent; (c) Maintenance and re- 
newals; (d) Power, or its equivalent in steam, for heating; (e) Labor as may 
be necessary. 

The sum of these expenses divided by the space to be heated (100 cubic 
feet being taken as a unit) gives the cost of heating, from which the expense 
of heating any room or department may be calculated. This account is to 
be made up monthly as it will fluctuate considerably from month to month. 

Fifth. Shop Transportation. Shop tracks, cars, elevators, cranes, etc. 
(a) Interest, 5 per cent on equipment and its installation; (b) Depreciation, 
5 per cent; (c) Maintenance and renewals; (d) Power to operate cranes, 
elevators, etc.; (e) Wages of operators. 

This being a general account floor rate is not charged. 



362 MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 

Sixth. Tools and Fixtures, (a) Attachments and fixtures made and 
used upon a certain machine are considered a part of that machine and added 
to its value; (b) Regular hand tools, as drills, reamers, taps, dies, etc., are a 
part of the shop equipment and the interest on their cost, plus the expense for 
maintenance and renewals should be added to the general expense; (c) Special 
tools necessary for work on a certain order are charged to that order. If 
the order finally becomes a regular line of work, then tools will be charged 
to the general expense as above. 

Seventh. Materials. This includes all raw and manufactured materials 
and supplies, purchased parts, whether in the rough, partly or completely 
finished, which are applied directly to the product. It will require space to 
store this material, men to handle, issue, and account for it; these expenses 
become a part of the general expense account and are charged as overhead 
burden. The items will be: (a) Floor rate for space occupied for storage; 

(b) Interest, 5 per cent on the average amount invested in material; (c) 
Insurance on material; (d) Lighting and heating store room; (e) Labor, 
handling, and accounting for material. 

Eighth. Non-productive Labor, (a) Wages of all employees not work- 
ing directly upon the product. This includes superintendent, foremen, 
gang bosses, clerks, laborers, and others, except when on work properly 
chargeable to production orders. 

Ninth. General Office, (a) Real estate charges as explained in the 
first paragraph; (b) Interest, 5 per cent on furniture and equipment; (c) 
Insurance, 5 per cent on same; (d) Maintenance and renewals of same; 
(e) Office supplies; (/) Lighting, as explained in third paragraph; (g) Heat- 
ing, as explained in the fourth paragraph; (//) Legal, traveling, telegraph, 
telephone, postal, express, freight, and trucking expenses. 

Tenth. Machine Rate. Made up for each machine, (a) Interest, 5 
per cent on value and installation; (b) Depreciation, 5 to 10 per cent, according 
to the kind of machine, class of work, and hours used per week, month, or 
year; (c) Maintenance, renewals, and repairs; (d) Floor rate, including space 
occupied by the machine and the space necessary for handling its work; 
(e) Power for operating the machine. The sum of these expenses for a month 
or more is to be reduced to an hourly rate, as already explained. 

Eleventh. Man rate, (a) Floor rate; (b) Consumable tools and supplies; 

(c) Liability insurance. The floor rate chargeable to each man is to be com- 
puted as follows: From the entire area of floor space or surface subtract the 
amount assigned to machines plus that occupied by the power plant. Divide 
the remainder by the number of productive men. This method will place 
the proper burden upon such departments as the assembling room, which 
contains few and often no machines. The amount so determined is reduced 



MANUFACTURING COST SYSTEMS 363 

to an hourly rate to be charged as a burden to all productive labor. This 
rate is assessed separately to the departments equipped with machines of 
varying numbers and sizes, or with no machines at all. 

Twelfth. Productive Labor, (a) Wages of all employees working 
directly at hand or machine operations on the actual product or output of 
the plant, (b) Man rate as explained in the eleventh paragraph. 

The Sales Department, while connected with the general office, is an 
entirely separate matter in relation to its accounts, in consequence of its 
work being that of marketing the product, and its expenses are entirely com- 
mercial expenses rather than manufacturing expenses. It must bear its 
proportion of the real estate charges of the general office building according 
to the space occupied by it, and its entire expenses are distributed as a per- 
centage over the product after it is completed and ready for the market. 

Actual manufacturing operations begin with ordering the work into the 
shops. In every well conducted manufactory there should be nothing com- 
menced until definite, written orders, regularly issued by competent author- 
ity, have been received. These orders should specify exactly what is to be 
done, and generally give a time limit for completing the work. In cases 
where a lengthy description is necessary and cannot be written on the regular 
order blank, reference should be made to specifications or drawings, or both, 
attached to the order and forming a part of it. There should be nothing left 
indefinite or about which a doubt or question may arise in the future as to 
the precise nature of the work described. The importance of this point can- 
not be too strongly emphasized or overestimated. In cases of emergencies 
a new order may be issued, or an existing order changed or suspended by a 
subordinate official, who will report the fact to his immediate superior as 
soon as possible after such action, giving in writing the reasons for doing so. 

Theoretically all orders are issued by the Manager or General Manager, 
as the case may be. If there is a General Manager in charge of the entire 
business, and a Factory Manager in charge of all manufacturing operations, 
both may issue such general orders as are appropriate to their positions. 
Thus the General Orders for the regular product of the plant may be issued 
by the General Manager, while the others for, (a) operation of the plant, 
(b) maintenance and renewals of equipment, and (c) maintenance and re- 
newals of real estate will be issued by the Factory Manager. 

The form of these orders is as follows: Fig. 216 shows the General 
Production Order, issued by the general manager for making a specified lot 
of machines for stock. In the line "machines, attachments, tools, fixtures," 
such words as are not required are to be erased by drawing a line through 
them. They are serially numbered and dated. When necessary a date may 
be given for their completion; or for the completion of certain parts, or groups 



364 



MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 



of parts, and the balance at a later date. The date " received in factory " 
will be the beginning of the time limit for completion, in case it has been 
given as "30 days," "3 months," etc. This order is to be made in duplicate, 
one copy of which is sent to the Factory Manager and one retained by the 
General Manager, or in triplicate, and one copy sent to the Engineering De- 
partment, so that the necessary drawings may be furnished. 



STOCK PRODUCTION ORDER 
No. Date 


Make for stock the following 
Machines. Attachments. Tools.. Fixtures. 


Quantity 


D escri ption 


Size 








To be completed 


Rec'd in Factorv 




Order completed 













Fig. 216. — General Production Order Card. 

Or, as is the better procedure, the order when received by the factory 
manager will be entered in his Order Book and sent to the Production 
Engineer, or similar official, in charge of the Planning Department, in which 
all orders for work, drawings, shop operation cards, etc., are issued. This 
official will issue the Sub-Production Order Card shown in Fig. 217. This 
order gives the general order number by which this particular work or 
operation will be identified. It may be issued for a large number of small 
parts, which are to be made and turned in to the Finished Parts Store Room, 
from which they may be drawn on requisitions for assembling of erect- 
ing; or it may be issued for the making of the number of parts required 
for the general production order whose number it bears. Several Sub-Pro- 
duction Orders may be issued for work in different departments on the number 
of the one general order. The blank lines to be rilled in this order explain 
themselves. A similar form is used for assembling, erecting, testing, etc., 
except that different colors are used, and duplicates are filed in the office 
issuing them. But caution should always be used lest too many blanks are 
used and confusion result, as it is much better to make one card or paper 
blank do as many different things and perform as many different services as 
possible, even through different departments, each of which may add the 



MANUFACTURING COST SYSTEMS 



365 



necessary endorsement and pass it along. When so used the blanks may 
need to be of larger dimensions and have appropriate spaces for the several 
endorsements of the departments through which they may pass. 



Gen.OrderNo. SUB PRODUCTION ORDER 

STOCK Date 






Serial 
No. 


Piece Drwg. 
No. No. 


To be completed 




Quantity 


Description 






Completed 




1 



Fig. 217. — Sub-Production Order Card. 

When a special machine, attachment, fixture, etc., is to be built the 
General Manager will issue a Special Production Order of the form shown 
in Fig. 218. This order is handled in a similar manner to the Stock Produc- 



No.. 



SPECIAL PRODUCTION ORDER 
Date 



Make for 



Address 



Their 
No._ 



Their 
Date 



To be 

Shipped 



Date Completed 



GENERM. MANAGER 



Fig. 218. — Special Production Order Card. 



tion Order, Sub-Production Orders being issued to the various departments 
concerned. Usually specifications or drawings, or both, accompany it. 

For such work as the operation of the plant, maintenance and renewal of 
equipment, maintenance and renewal of real estate, etc., orders under the 



3 66 



MACHINE SHOP MANAGEMENT 



general name of " plant orders" are issued. They have written or printed 
upon them the particular work that each class covers, and should be of a 
distinctly different color from production orders. In numbering all general 
orders are in one series. This serial number is placed on all sub-production 
orders and a serial number for the particular class added. Or, the general 
serial number may be used with a symbol of one or more letters prefixed, 
as X for experimental work; R for repair work, etc. It is sometimes con- 
venient and practical to prescribe limits for the use of serial numbers. For 
instance, general production orders may be numbered from i to 2000; plant 
orders from 2001 to 5000; and sub-production orders from 5000 up. 

All orders, when the work called for by them has been completed, will 
be returned to the official issuing them unless there is a specific instruction 
to the contrary. 

All material is "drawn from the store room," whether actually in that 
room or stored elsewhere, but accounted for as "in store." This will include 
castings and similar rough stock, as well as purchased parts and small ma- 
terials; and from the finished parts store room the parts manufactured in 
the plant. Fig. 219 shows the form for a Requisition for Supplies Card. 



Req. No. 




REQUISITION FOR SUPPLIES 

Date 










Forihe 


Dent. 








Store Keeper, please issue the following articles for 
use in this department. 


Quan. 


Dimensions 


Description 


Value 
























• 








































rorerridn 


Issued 


Received the 
Above 







Fig. 219. — Requisition for Supplies Card. 

It will cover all classes of material and supplies. For convenience these 
cards may be of different colors for the different departments. A carbon 
copy should be retained by the official signing them, and the original, with 
the store-keeper's report thereon, sent to the cost clerk. This report will 
give rates and values of the material issued. 

In inaugurating a new cost system, it should be remembered that the 
first duty is to make a careful examination of the plant in general and of 
each of its departments, and the methods of manufacturing and cost ac- 



MANUFACTURING COST SYSTEMS 367 

counting, as well as of the general and subordinate offices and their existing 
systems. This examination should be made by an experienced and trained 
expert, who should make a careful study of all conditions so as to be able to 
formulate plans and so co-ordinate them as to produce the best results with 
the least cost and without undue friction between the managing officials 
and the departments, or between the different departments forming the 
plant. The importance of this examination, the carefulness with which it 
is made, the thorough and painstaking study of its conditions and elements, 
and the accurate deductions made therefrom will in a great measure de- 
termine the success of the cost system that is finally decided upon. 



INDEX 



Accidents to employees, liability of, 318,319. 
Accidental injuries, prompt aid necessary, 

321. 
Account books, tendency to have too many, 

245- 
Accounting for time, or labor, 252. 

Accounts of time, 317. 

Actually fire-proof buildings not possible, 39. 

Adding machines, 257. 

Administration of Mutual Aid Association, 

321. 
Administrative information gained by cost 

system, 268. 
Advantages of brick chimneys, 61. 

of steel chimneys, 61. 
Aid Association, Machine Shop, Mutual, 318. 
Air, compressed, 109, 116. 
Air compressor in foundry, 183. 
Air hoists in foundry, 183. 
Annealing and case-hardening furnace, 196, 

197, 198, 199, 200. 
Apparatus for heating and ventilating, 91, 94. 
Apportioning fixed charges, 258. 
Arbor rack, 139, 140. 
Arc lights, 106, 108. 
Army, system of the U. S., 240, 241. 
Arranging force of workmen in pattern shop, 

299, 300. 
Artificial and natural lighting, 99, 104. 
Artificial support for foundations, 69, 70. 
Ascertaining fixed charges, 258, 263. 
Assembling Department for small parts, 130, 

134. 
Assistant superintendents, 242. 
Association for mutual aid in machine shop, 

318. 
Atkinson, Edward, Report of, 38. 
Attendant in Emergency Room, 322. 
Automatic blueprint washer, 161, 162. 

Balance crane, 205. 

Bar iron and steel storage shed, 24. 

Bar stock storage for forge shop, 201, 202. 

Batter of chimney walls, 63. 

plumbs, 66. 

of wall faces, 44. 



Battered foundation walls, 71. 
Beams, compound, 40. 

for slow-burning construction, 44, 46, 48. 
Benedict's construction of windows, 102, 103, 

104. 
Benching-out ground for foundations, 71. 
Bell for calling Emergency Room attendant, 

322. 
Bigelow boilers, 114. 
Blast pipes for forge blower, 195. 
Blower for forge shop, 195, 196. 

for foundry, 182, 185. 
Blue or brown prints, ordering, 279, 280. 
Blueprint washing box, 161, 162. 

frame, supporting stand for, 160. 

index card, 281. 

record card, 281. 

room, 159, 160. 
Blueprints, issuing, 279. 

mounted, storing of, 278. 

mounting of, 275, 276. 

filing and storing, 278. 
Blueprinting by electric light, 163, 164. 
Board showing the progress of orders, 246, 

247. 
Boiler grates, in, 112, 113. 

room, ^3^ XI 5- 

room floor, 85. 

room, lighting system, 108. 

setting, cross section and elevation of, 
112. 

setting foundations, 114. 

setting horizontal section of, 113. 

setting longitudinal section of, 112. 
Boilers, no, 115. 

smoke connections for, 113. 

steam connections for, 113, 114. 

types of, no. 
Books, carbon copy, 248. 

for accounts, avoid having too many, 

245- 
Book for recording job time, 255. 

Boring and Drilling Department, 131, 132. 

Boston, Insurance Engineering Station, 38. 

Boxes for storing tools, 292. 

Boom crane, 23. 



369 



37° 



INDEX 



Bench for pattern makers, 169, 170, 171. 
Brick chimneys, 61. 

floors, 36, 78, 84, 230. 

walls, 28, 33, 40, 44, 5o._ 

walls, sham work in building, 28. 

walls, stretcher courses in, 28. 

walls, Flemish bond, 28. 

walls, English bond, 28. 

work, spacing for windows, 29. 
Bridging to support floor joists, 83. 
Buildings, general dimensions of, 20. 

elasticity of, 27. 

exits from, 28. 

for manufacturing, 17. 

foundations, 68. 

lighting of, 27. 

so-called fire-proof, 38. 

strength of, 27. 

with saw-tooth roof, traveling cranes for, 

56. 
ventilation of, 27, 31, 32, S3, 5 2 > 57- 
Built up steel beam for floor support, 78. 
Burden of expense per square foot of floor 
surface, 312. 
fixed charges, 262, 264. 
idle machines, 265. 
Buttresses, or pilasters, dimensions of, 31, 
32, 33, 35> 42. 

Cabinet for pattern makers' supplies, 306, 

307- 
Cabinet and racks for drying blueprints, 162, 

163. 

Calculating diameters of chimneys, 62. 

machines, 257. 
Call bell for emergency room, 322. 
Capacity of catch basins, 122. 

of pattern shop, 166. 

of the plant, expansion of, 25. 
Caps for chimneys, 67. 
Card for recording materials and costs, 253. 

for permanent issue of tools, 292. 

stock ledger, 295. 

system for listing patterns, 307, 308. 

time, for use in recording clock, 254. 
Careful study of detail necessary, 217, 218. 
Carpenter shop, 24. 

construction of, 35. 

cross-section through, 35. 

equipment, 218. 

floor, 86. 

foreman's desk, 219, 220. 

foreman's office, 219. 

heating system for, 92. 

power for, 118. 

storeroom, 220. 

windows, 36. 



Cars and tracks for shop use, 315, 3160 

arranged for special work, 215. 

arranged for trays, 214. 

construction of, 212, 214, 215. 

for shop or yard track, 212. 

for dumping, 215. 

for shop, 205. 

with removable box, 214. 

with removable stakes, 214. 

number necessary, 216. 

tracks, 35. 

tracks in foundry, 23, 179. 

tracks in forge shop, 193, 194. 

wheels, 213. 
Cases and bins for carpenter's storeroom, 
220, 221. 

for files, 140, 141, 142. 

for filing drawings and tracings, 155, 
156. 

for long tools, 141. 

for rough stock,- 1^6. 

for pattern letters and figures, 305, 306. 

for sheet stock, 147. 

for small bar stock, 146. 

for storing drawings and tracings, 155, 
156. ( 

for storing mounted blueprints, 279. 

for tools, 140. 
Case-hardening and annealing furnace, 196, 

197, 198, 199, 200. 
Case-hardening and tempering, 192. 
Cast iron knees for slow-burning construc- 
tion frames, 46. 

plates for floors, 86. 
Castings, pickling of, 186, 187. 

list of, 250. 

requisition for, 251. 
Catch basins for drainage system, 120, 122. 

capacity of, 122. 

cleaning of, 122. 
Cement in mortar for foundations, 72. 
Central core of chimneys, 63, 66. 
Central core of chimneys, supporting of, 66. 
Ceilings, protection of, 40. 
Chain transmission, no. 
Change not always progress, 311. 
Charging floor of foundry, 181. 

car for foundry, 179, 180, 181, 182. . 

floor of cupola platform, 86. 
Cheapness versus economy, 298. 
Check board in tool room, 289, 290. 
Cheek pieces in boiler furnaces, 112, 113. 
Chief draftsman's desk, 153, 154. 
Chimney, or stack, 61. 

batter of walls, 63. 

calculating the diameter of, 62. 

cores of, 63. 



INDEX 



37i 



Chimney, dimension of, 62, 66. 

elevation of, 64. 

for forge shop, 33. 

foundation of, 66. 

foundation, excavation for, 66. 

height of, 62. 

horizontal section of, square portion, 
64, 65. 

horizontal section of, octagonal portion, 
64, 65. 

ladders for, 67. 

lightning rod for, 67. 

octagonal form of, 63. 

for power house, 61. 

square form of, 63. 

tops or caps, 67. 

vertical section, 64. 

walls of, 63. 
Chipping room in foundry, 23, 25, 185. 
Choice of ground for manufacturing plants, 

119. 
Circulating Reading Room literature, 325. 
Classification of employees, 316. 

of fixed charges, 264. 

of machines, 265, 312. 

of transportation facilities, 204. 
Cleaning catch basins, 122. 
Clocks, registering and recording time, 252, 

2 53> 3 J 7- 
Coal car, 215. 

storage shed, 25, 36. 

Coke storage shed, 25, 36. 

Cold saw in forge shop, 199. 

Colors for varnishing patterns, 307. 

Colored cards for pattern shop system, 308, 

3°9- 
Combination stock case, 147. 

Combustion chamber in chimneys, 67. 
Common interest of employers and em- 
ployees, 325. 
Compound beams, 40. 
Comprehensive plans necessary, 17. 
Compressed air, 109, no. 

in foundry, 183. 

hoists in foundry, 183. 
Concluding remarks, 119. 
Concrete floor for machine shop, 81. 
Conditions of manufacturing compared, 312. 
Conditions governing erecting manufactur- 
ing buildings, 27, 28. 
Copies of orders, 249. 
Consumable supplies, 267, 297. 

requisitions for, 256, 257. 
Construction of buildings, older forms, 39. 

drawings, 275. 

of carpenter shop, 35. 

of floors, 77. 



Construction of forge shop, 32, 192. 

of power house, 33, 34. 

of roofs, saw-tooth, 54. 

of shop and yard track, 206. 

of storehouse, 34, 35. 

of storage sheds, 36. 

of walls of slow-burning form, 42. 

of windows, Benedict's, 103, 104. 
Contracts for work and supplies, 246. 

system, fallacy of, 265, 266. 
Conventional lines on drawings, 273, 

indication of materials on drawings, 274. 
Core room, in foundry, 188. 

in chimneys, 63. 
Correspondence, 246. 
Cost and material card in tool room, 286. 

clerk, qualifications of, 262. 

excessive, of so-called fire-proof build- 
ings, 38. 

of Emergency Department, 323. 

of food in Shop Dining Room, 327. 

of shellac, alcohol, dry colors, etc., 309. 

of slow-burning construction, 39. 

keeping imperfectly understood, 259. 

the five factors of, 266. 

systems compared, 260, 261. 

systems, diversity of, 260, 261. 

systems, important facts shown, 268. 

systems, not relatively expensive, 269. 

systems, the two general plans, 262, 
263. 
Coverings for roofs, 29. 

for steam pipes, 118. 
Cranes considered as machines, 268. 

for the yard, 23. 

for the foundry, 23. 

jib, 23. 

support for, 29, 30, 31. 

traveling, 23, 25, 29, 32. 
Criticism of military methods, 241. 
Cross-section of curved yard track, 209, 210. 

of straight yard track, 209, 210. 

through forge shop, 33. 

through carpenter shop, 35. 

through cupola platform, 31, 32. 

through foundry, 31. 

through machine shop, 30. 

through power house, 34. 

through storehouse, 35. 
Cupolas, in foundry, 23. 

location of, 184, 185. 

platforms, 32. 

platform, section through, 31, 32. 

platform floor, 86. 
Curves and switches of yard track, 208. 
Cutting up lumber for building purposes, 79, 
80. 



3/2 



INDEX 



Cutting up logs for pattern lumber, 302. 

speeds, 315. 
Cut-off couplings, 117. 
Cutting-off machine in forge shop, 199. 

Dark room, 157, 158. 
Depth of foundations, 68, 228, 229. 
Defects of so-called fire-proof buildings, 38. 
Defective work, accounting for, 255, 256. 
Department for assembling small parts, 130, 

134. 

for experimental work, 130, 134. 
for grinding and polishing, 130, 133. 
for small parts, 130, 133. 
for boring and turning, 130, 131, 132. 
for heavy turning, 130, 132. 
for milling and gear cutting, 130, 133. 
for planing, 130, 131. 
Departments of machine shop described, 130, 

I3 1 - 
of machine shop, plans of, 130. 

in the galleries, 130, 133. 

Depreciation of machines, 265. 

Designating machines by symbols, 276, 277, 

3°4- i 
Desk for chief draftsman, 153, 154, 155. 
Desk for carpenter shop foreman, 219, 220. 
Details of equipment, 125, 136, 137, 150, 166, 
167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 178, 191, 204, 
217, 218, 224, 283, 321, 328. 
Diagram of shop organization, 237. 
Dimensions of walls, slow-burning construc- 
tion, 42. 
of buildings, 20. 
of engine, 114. 
of forge shop, 32, 33. 
of power house, 33, 34. 
of slow-burning construction, 42. 
Dimension lines and figures on drawings, 273. 
Dining Room for employees, 326. 
Direct labor plan cost system, 262, 263. 
Distinctive colors of blanks and cards, 250, 

25 1 ! 2 5 2 > 2 53> 2 54, 2 5 6 > 2 57> 2 79> 28 °> 
281, 286, 287, 288, 292, 295, 296, 309. 

colors of cards for card system, 308, 309. 

colors on patterns, 307. 
Distributing fixed charges, 258. 
Distribution of power, 313. 

of time accounts, 254. 
Double car, special platform, 215. 

drawing tables, 153, 154. 
Dowels, 303, 304, 305. 
Down-draft forges, 29, 194. 
Draft of chimneys, form for increasing, 63, 

67. 
Drafting Room, 270. 
Drawings, construction, 275. 



Drawings, conventional lines on, 273. 

conventional indication of materials on> 

2 74- 
dimension lines and figures on, 273. 
filing case for, 155, 156. 
lettering on, 275. 
scales of, 272. 
section lining on, 273, 274. 
sizes of, 271, 272. 

storing and filing of, 156, 157, 278. 
symbols for machines on, 275, 276, 277, 

3°4- 

titles on, 274, 275. 
Drawing, lessons in, for employees, 325. 

paper, case for storing, 155, 156. 

tables, double, 153, 154. 

tables, single, 152, 154. 

room expenses, 266. 

room equipments, 150. 

room facilities, expansion of, 164. 

room, general rules for, 270. 

room, importance of, 150, 151. 

room, lavatory for, 153, 157. 

room, lighting of, 151. 

room, location of, 152. 

room, lockers in, 153, 157. 

room management, 270. 

room materials, 271. 

room, plan of, 153. 

room, safe in, 153, 157. 

room, vault in, 157, 158. 

room, water-closets for, 153, 157. 

room windows, 151. 
Drainage for manufacturing buildings, 120. 
Driving machines by electricity, 116, 313. 
Driving traveling cranes in building with 

saw-tooth roof, 57. 
Drop press foundations, 74, 75. 
Drilling and Boring Department, 130, 131, 

i3 2 -. 
Driveways in yard, 122. 

Drying blueprints, 162, 163. 

room for pattern lumber, 171, 172, 173, 

Dues in Mutual Aid Association, 319, 320. 

suspension of, 320. 
Dumping car, 215. 
Dynamos for electric lighting, 107. 

for lighting, power for, 117. 

Early history of the iron foundry, 178, 179. 
Earth and concrete floors, 77, 78. 
Economical distribution of power, 109, 313, 

Economy in the use of expensive lumber, 303. 
Education of employees in Shop Reading 
Room, 323, 



INDEX 



373 



Efficiency in manufacturing operations, 311. 

of employees injured by poor light, 105. 

of men shown by cost system, 268. 

of machines, 314, 315. 
Effective planning, 150. 
Elasticity of buildings, 27. 
Electrically driven machines, 116, 313. 
Electric blueprinting machine, 163, 164. 

lamps, number required for the plant, 
108. 

lighting, 105, 106, 108. 

lighting dynamos, 107. 

lighting power required for, 108. 

lights in drawing room, 151. 

motors, 116, 313. 

motors in forge shop, 201. 

mercury lamp, 107. 
Elevation of completed chimney, 64. 

of cars, 212, 214, 215. 
Elevator for charging cars, 23. 
Employers benefit by Shop Reading Room, 

3 2 4. 
Employees, classification of, 316. 
Emergency Department, value of, 323. 

Department, cost of, 323. 

Room, 321. 
Enamel paints for machines, 224. 
English bond, for brick walls, 28. 
Engine builders, 114. 

dimensions of, 114. 

foundations for, 72, 73, 74. 

gas, 114. 

room, 33. 

room floor, 86. 

room, lighting system for, 108. 
Engines, types of, 114. 
Engineering Station, Insurance, Boston, 38. 
Enlarging the works, 25. 
Enlargement of the drawing room, 164. 
Equipment for shop transportation, 204. 

of carpenter shop, 218. 

of drawing room, 150. 

of Emergency Room, 321. 

of forge shop, 191. 

of machine shop, 125. 

of iron foundry, 178. 

of paint room, 224. 

of pattern shop, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 
171. 

of shop kitchen, 328. 

of tool room, 136, 137, 283. 

of tool storeroom, 136, 137. 

miscellaneous, 217. 

must conform to contemplated product, 
126. 

proposed for a medium class of work, 
126. 



Errand boys, 292. 

Excessive cost of so-called fire-proof build- 
ings, 38. 
Excavating for paved floors, 86. 
Excavation for foundation of chimney, 66. 

for foundations of buildings, 68, 69. 

for foundations of planer, 228, 229. 
Exhaust fans, 24. 

steam for heating, 88. 
Exits from buildings, 28. 
Expansion of the drawing room facilities, 164. 

the one-man limit of, 236. 
Expense burden, 265. 

per square foot of floor surface, 312. 

burden of drawing room, 266. 

of pattern shop, 266. 

of Shop Dining Room, 328. 

of Shop Reading Room, 325. 

of tool room, 267. 
Experimental Department, 130, 134. 
Extension of the capacity of the works, 25. 

Facts of importance known day by day, 269. 
Failure of floors, 83, 84. 

of machine foundations, 228. 

of steel chimneys, 62. 
Files, storing and issue of, 290. 
File case, 140, 141, 142. 
Filing case for drawings and tracings, 155, 
156. 

drawings and tracings, system for, 156, 

157, 278. 
drawings, tracings, and blueprints, 278. 
Fillets, wood and leather, 303. 
Financial assistance for injured employees, 

318. 

table, Mutual Aid Association, 320. 
Finished machines, storehouse for, 24. 

parts storeroom, 21, 134. 
Fireproof buildings, 38, 39. 
First aid to injured employees, 321. 
Five factors of cost, the, 266. 
Fixed charges, apportioning, 258. 

charges, ascertaining, 258, 263. 

charges, classification of, 264. 

desks in storerooms, 149. 
Flask room in foundry, 23, 25, 188. 
Flemish bond, in brickwork, 28. 
Floor joists, bridging to support, 83. 

of boiler room, 85. 

of carpenter shop, 86. 

of cupola platform, 80. 

of engine room, 86. 

of forge shop, 85. 

of foundry, 84. 

of machine shop, 80, 81. 

of machine shop galleries, 30, 81. 



374 



INDEX 



Floor joists, of office building, 87. 

of power house, 87. 

of storehouse, 86. 

of storage sheds, 36. 

of wash rooms, 87. 

planks, 44, 46, 48, 49> 5 J > 5 2 > 8 3- 

supports for, 40. 

supports in office building, 87. 

supported entirely by steel beams, 82. 

supported by I-beams, 78. 

timbers for slow-burning construction, 
44, 46, 48. 
Floors, 28. 

construction of, 77, 81, 82. 

different kinds of, 77, 78. 

strength of, 28. 

of brick paving, 78. 

of cast iron plates, 86. 

of earth and concrete, 77, 78. 

of flagstones, 78. 

of sheet steel plates, 86. 

of stone and concrete, 78. 

of wash rooms and water-closets, 226, 
227. 

of one-story machine shop, 50, 51, 52. 

of slow-burning construction, 44, 46, 48, 
49. 

supported by built-up beams, 78. 

supported by wooden beams, 79. 

that failed, 83, 84. 

to be ventilated, 83. 
Fluctuations of business shown by cost 

system, 268. 
Force in pattern shop, 166, 299, 300. 
Foremen, 242, 243. 
Foremen's orders, 248. 

orders in tool room, 286, 287, 288. 

offices,^, 138. 

offices in forge shop, 193, 194. 

offices in foundry, 185. 

offices in pattern shop, 169. 

offices in tool room, 283, 285. 
Forges, down-draft, 24, 124. 
Forge shop, 24. 

bar stock, storage for, 201, 202. 

blower, 195, 196. 

car tracks, 193, 194. 

chimneys, ^. 

class of work in, 191, 192. 

cold saw for, 199. 

construction of, 32. 

cross-section through, 7,3- 

cutting-off machine for, 200. 

dimensions of, 32. 

electric motor for, 201. 

equipment for, 191. 

floor for, 85. 



Forge shop, foreman's office in, 193, 194. 

general plan showing equipment of, 193. 

heating furnace in, 196. 

jib crane for, 201. 

location of, 192. 

lockers in, 203. 

lighting system of, 107, 108. 

power for, 118, 200. 

power hack saw for, 199. 

roof ventilation for, 7,3- 

shed for, 36. 

turret lathe for, 200. 

walls of, 7,2,. 

wash room for, 203. 

water-closets for, 203. 
Forgings, list of, 250. 

requisition for, 251. 
Form of heating pipes, 89, 90. 
Foundations, construction of, 68. 
Foundations, excavations for, 68, 69, 228. 

depth of, 68, 228. 

for boiler settings, 114. 

for chimney, 66. 

for drop press, 74, 75. 

for engines, 72, 73, 74. 

for machines, 72, 73, 227, 228. 

for planer, 73, 229, 230. 

for steam hammer, 74, 75, 76. 

for buildings, 68. 

on soft ground, 69. 

protecting strips for, 121. 

stones, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76. 

walls, 28. 

walls battered, 71. 

walls straight, 71. 

walls for slow-burning construction of 
wood only, 46. 

walls for one-story machine shop, 51, 52. 
Foundry, 26. 

blowers, 182, 185. 

car tracks, 23, 179. 

charging car for, 179, 180, 181, 182. 

charging floor of, 181. 

chipping room of, 185. 

compressed air in, 183. 

construction of, 23, 31. 

core room of, 188. 

cranes for, 23, 32. 

cross-section through, 31. 

cupolas, location of, 184, 185. 

early history of, 178, 179. 

equipment for, 178, 180. 

floor, 84. 

floor pits, 84. 

foreman's office in, 185. 

gases, escape of, 32. 

heating apparatus for, 185. 



INDEX 



375 



Foundry, heating system of, 94, 95, 96. 

increasing capacity of, 25. 

lighting system of, 107. 

molding machines in, 184. 

molding pits in, 184. 

pickling beds in, 186, 187. 

plan of, 23. 

power for, 118. 

roof, 32. 

sand sifters in, 184. 

storage of flasks in, 188. 

traveling cranes, power for, 182, 205. 

tumbling barrels in, 182, 185. 

ventilator for, 32. 

washing sinks in, 188, 189. 

wash room in, 188, 189, 190. 
Franklin portable crane, 206. 
Fraternal spirit among employees, 325. 
Front elevation of model machine shop 

plant, 21. 
Frame, for slow-burning construction, 47, 
48. 

of one-story machine shop, 50, 51. 

self-sustaining, for slow-burning con- 
struction, 49. 
Frenzied mechanics, 238. 
Fuel account, 256. 
Furnace for annealing and case-hardening, 

196, 197, 198, 199, 200. 
Frame for large blueprints, 161. 

Gallery departments, 133. 

floors, 30, 81. 
Galleries of machine shop, 21. 
Gang bosses, 243, 244. 
Gas engines, 114. 

Gases, free escape of, in foundry, 32. 
Gear Cutting and Milling Department, 133. 
General construction, 27. 

efficiency in manufacturing operations, 

3"- 
manager, 241. 

orders, 249. 

plan of forge shop, showing equipment, 

plan of foundry equipment, 180. 

plan of manufacturing buildings, 20, 22. 
Glass, kinds of, in Benedict's windows, 103. 

ribbed, 100, 103. 
Good lighting a necessity, 105. 

pattern maker, requisites for a, 300, 301. 

citizenship, talks on, for employees, 325. 

workmanship injured by poor light, 105. 
Graphic diagram of shop organization, 237. 
Grates for boilers, in, 112, 113. 
Gray iron castings, list of, 250. 

requisitions for, 251. 



Gravel, quality of, for use in floors, 79. 
Grinding and Polishing Department, 130, 

Group index cards, 279. 
Ground for manufacturing plants, 119. 
Growth of manufacturing plants, 17. 
Gutters for one-story machine shop, 52. 

for saw-tooth roof, 59, 60. 

slow-burning construction, 45. 

Hack saw, power, for forge shop, 199. 
Handling and issuing tools, 290, 291. 

lumber, 301. 
Hard bricks for machine foundations, 72, 73, 

79- 
pan, foundations should rest on, 68. 

pine for floors, 87. 
Header courses in brick walls, 28, 29. 
Heating and ventilating system, 88. 

apparatus, 91, 94. 

apparatus in foundry, 185. 

apparatus in machine shop, 91, 92, 93. 

apparatus in office building, 96, 97. 

by exhaust steam, 88. 

Heating furnace in forge shop, 106. 

pipes, form of, 89, 90. 

systems compared, 88. 

systems for carpenter shop, 92. 

systems for machine shop, 92, 93. 

systems for the offices, 97. 

systems for the wash rooms, 92, 97. 

systems, installation of, 94. 

systems, requisites of, 89. 

the foundry, 94, 95. ' 

the ideal system of, 89. 

the lumber drying room, 172, 173. 

the office building, 91, 95, 96, 97. 

with hot water, 88. 

with live steam, 88. 
Heavy Turning Department, 130, 132. 
Height of building, slow-burning construc- 
tion, 42. 

of chimneys, 62. 
High speed tool steel, 314, 315. 

windows, 106. 
History of iron foundry in early times, 178, 

179. 
Hoists operated by compressed air, 183. 

overhead trolley in chipping room, 187, 
188. 
Holding-down bolts, 72, 73. 
Horizontal system of tool carriers, 143, 144, 

145- 
Hours of lighting, 104. 

Hot water for heating, 88. 



-: 



INDEX 



I-beam supports for floors, 78. 

Ideal heating system, 89. 

Idle machines, burden : I : -- 

Illness of employees. 319. 

Importance of prompt aid in accidental 

injuries. :::. 
Index card for blueprint : : : 

card for groups, 279. 

card machine, 280. 

sheets for drawer for drawing, tracir - 
and blueprint^ : - : 
Indexing drawings, tracings, and blueprints, 

Incandescent lights, 106. 
Increasing draft of chimneys, 63, 67. 
Inner core of chimneys, 63, 66. 
Installation of heating system, 94. 
Insurance against accidents and illness, 319. 

Engineering Station, Boston, 38. 
Introduction, 17. 
Iron foundry, 26. 

foundry, equipment of, 178. 

or steel roofs, 28. 
Issuing and recovering tools, system for, 291. 

blueprints, 279. 

patterns, system for, 307, 308. 

Jib crane for forge shop, 255. 

for iron foundry, 180, 185. 
Job time book, 201. 

Kinds of floors. 77, - : 

Knees of cast iron for frames of slow-burning 
construction, 46. 

Labor accounts, 317. 

accounting for, 252, 261, 262, 263, 266. 

difficulties avoided, 326. 

distribution of time, 254, 255. 
Ladders for chimney--. :". 
Lamps, arc, 106. 

electric, murcury, 107. 

electric, number required, 108. 

incandescent, 106. 

magnetic, 106. 
Large blueprint frame, 161. 
Lavatory for drawing room, 153 : - - 
Laying stones in foundation walls, 71. 
Leaders and not drivers of men, 238. 
Leather fillets , 303, 305. 
Lectures to mechanics, 325. 
Lettering on drawings. : - 5 

on pattern- ,27- 
Librarian for Shop Reading Room, 3 : 5 
Lighting the buildir. gs, 

diagram of the machine shop, 101. 

diagram of saw- tooth roc:. 54 57, :oi. 



L : .zr.::zz 



- 



:he enr: 



Lockers 
in i 

in : 
in 



Miliizrs. r ; . 



:>:~. :::. : = -. 



; : - : : 






:: 



■-:;. :::. :::. zz,i, 



IQi 



_:::.::- r iziex :iris iz drawer. :Sc. 
L:z :-e rizz: ~iy :: ::.: i: .; : z : z:. 

:ze ~~~z\z.z ~iy :: ::.: :: zi !■:. }z:. 
Loose leaf system of bookkeeping, 257. 
L :~ ~zz~ : ~s. ::■: 
Lumber drying room, 171, 172, 301. 

:':: bziliizz. ~z. ::. 

::: ;zzezzs. :::. 

zi^zze: :■: s::rizz iz rirzezTr: si: 7. 
: : 5 . : : : 

manner of storing in pattern shop, 

proper care of expensive, 303. 

selecting, 301, 302. 

Miizize-E :ii.ssiz::i:i:z : :~ : ::: 

ie;:e:;3.:i :r. ::" :: - 

enamel paints for, 224. 

foundations for, 72, 73, 227, 228, 229. 

index card, 280. 

rrziirs. z:~ zzirzrd : :>. 
Machine shop, 26. 

cross section of, 30. 



INDEX 



377 



Machine shop, departments described, 131. 

Dining Room, 320. 

equipment, 125. 

floors, 80, 81 , 8$. 

galleries, 21. 

gallery floors, 81. 

galleries, departments, 133. 

heating system, 92, 93. 

lighting diagram of, 101. 

lockers for, 225, 226. 

management, 235. 

Mutual Aid Association, 318. 

offices, 21. 

one-story, 50, 51. 

plant, front elevation, 21. 

Reading Room, 323. 

side walls of, 31. 

wash rooms in, 225, 226. 

water-closets in, 225, 226. 

windows, 101. 

with saw-tooth roof, 59. 

ventilators, 31. 
Machine symbols, 304. 

on drawings, 275, 276, 277. 
Main building, 20. 
Management of drafting room, 270. 

machine shop, 235. 

of Shop Dining Room, 327. 

of Shop Reading Room, 324. 

of stock room, 282. 

of tool room, 267, 282. 
Manufacturing buildings, 17, 27. 

buildings, conditions governing erection 
of, 27. 

conditions, 18. 

operations, plans for, 128. 

plants, growth of, 17. 

plants, general plans of, 20, 22. 

the three grand factors of, 238. 

work in the tool room, 288. 
Main line shafting, 117. 
Magnetic lamps, 106. 
Material and cost card, 253, 309. 

and cost card in tool room, 286. 

requisitions for, 252. 

requisitions for special, 256. 

transportation facilitities for, 204, 205, 
206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 2ii, 212, 213, 
214, 215, 216. 

used in drafting room, 271. 
Mechanical calculators, 257. 

drawing, lessons in, for employees, 325. 

stoking, no. 
Medicine cabinet for Emergency Room, 322. 
Menu, in Shop Dining Room, 327. 
Methodical management in pattern shop, 
310. 



Methods of pattern shop management, 266. 
Military methods, criticism of, 241. 
Milling and Gear Cutting Department, 130, 

*33- 
Miscellaneous equipment, 217. 

Model machine shop plant, front elevation, 

21. 

Modern manufacturing conditions, 18. 

Molding floor of foundry, 182, 183. 

machines in foundry, 184. 

pits in foundry, 184. 
Monitor roof construction, 31. 

construction of roof, one-story machine 
shop, 52. 

roof of power house, 33. 
Mortar for foundation work, 66, 72, 228. 
Motors, electric, for driving machines, 116, 

3*3- 

for forge shop, 201. 

for foundry, 182. 
Mounting blueprints, 275, 276. 
Mutual Aid Association, 318. 

dues in, 319, 320. 

financial table of, 320. 

in machine shop, 318. 

officers of, 320. 

physician for, 320. 

plan of, 319. 

Natural and artificial lighting, 99. 
Necessity of comprehensive building plans, 
18. 
for a well considered plan of manufac- 
turing, 127. 
Number of cars necessary for transportation, 
216. 
of electric lamps required, 108. 
Numbering patterns, 277, 304. 

Octagonal form of chimneys, 63. 

portion of chimney, horizontal section, 
64, 65. 
Older construction of buildings, 39. 
Office building, lighting system for, 108. 

building, heating system of, 91, 95, 96, 

97- 
for carpenter shop foreman, 219. 

for foremen, 135. 

floors, 87. 

general, description of, 138. 

heating system of, 97. 

in the model plant, 21. 
Offices, plan of, 137. 

plan of, with vault, 159. 
Officers of Mutual Aid Association, 320. 
One-story machine shop of brick and wood, 

5°> 5 1 - 



- 



EvDEX 



One-story machine shop of brick and wood, 
floors for. 50. 51, p 

general dimensions of, 50, 51. 

gutters for. 5 s 

monitor roof of, 5 : 

roof of. -■ : j : 

ventilator roof for. J : 

walls of, 50. 

windows of, 5 : 53 
Openings at top of chimney, 67. 
Operating traveling crane in machine shop, 

:o. 
Overhead burden, 262, 264. 

trolleys, 131. 

trolley ho Is t : 14 

trolley hoists in chipping room, 1S7, 188. 
Ordering blue or brown prints, 279, 280. 
Orders, copies of, 249. 

for making tools, 285. 

of superintendent, 248. 
Organization of pattern shop force, 299, 300. 

of Shop Dining Room, 326, 3 : } 

of Shop Reading Room, 3 : _ 

Paint room, equipment of, 224. 

plan of, 224. 
Painting machines, 224. 
Parts, list of, 250. 
Partitions in tool departments, 288, 289. 

in water-closets, 226. 
Patterns, lettering on, 277, 304. 

letters and figures, 304, 305. 

lumber, 301. 

lumber drying room, 171, 172, 173, 301. 

lumber, economy in the use of, 303. 

numbering of, 277. 

maker, requisites for a good, 300, 301. 

maker's bench, 169, 170, 171. 

maker's supplies, cabinet for, 306, 307. 

shop, 21, 22, 23, 165, 266. 

shop, capacity of, 166. 

shop, equipment of, 166, 167, 168, 169, 
170, 171. 

shop, expenses, 266. 

shop, force, 166. 

shop force, organization of, 299, 300. 

shop foreman's office, 169. 

shop, location of, 168. 

shop, lockers in, 171. 

shop, plan of, 166. 

shop, product of, 166, 167. 

shop, system for, 298, 310. 

storage racks, 174, 175, 176, 177. 

storage loft, 165, 173, 307. 

storage room, 165, 173, 307. 

storage room, plan of, 166. 

storage system, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177. 



Paving yards. 121. 
Pay rolls in factory, 316. 
Perfect light, the, 106. 
Perfect system of management, 238. 
Permanent issues of tools. 292. 
Perspective view of building with saw-tooth 
roof, 59. 

slow-burning construction, of brick and 
wood. 4 

slow-burning construction, of wood 
only, 47. 
Photographic dark room. 1 5 - : : ; 
Physician of Mutual Aid Association, 320. 
Pickling beds in foundry, 186, : : - 

room in foundry, : 3 
Piecemeal plans unsuccessful. 1 : : 
Pig iron storage shed, : j 

transportation of, 179. 
Pilasters or buttresses, dimensions of, 31. 52, 

:: :: 4 2. 

Piles for supporting foundations, 69, 70. 

Pintles, cast iron, 43, 44. 

Pipes for blast of forge shop blower, 195. 

form of, for heating. So. 90. 
Pits in foundry floor, S_ I5 
Planer foundation, 73, 229. 230. 

setting up a, 230, 231. 
Planks for floors, 44, 48, 49, 51, 5: 

for floors, slow-burning construction, 

44^ 45' 5 1 - :: 
Plan of building, saw-tooth roof, 56. 

of carpenter shop, showing equipment, 

218. 
of charging floor of foundry, 181. 
of curves and switches for yard track, 

208. 
of drawing room, 153. 
of drawing room with vault, 15S. 
of equipment must be well considered, 

12- 
of forge shop, showing equipment, 193. 
of foundry, showing equipment, 180. 
of machine shop departments, 130. 
of Mutual Aid Association, 319. 
of offices. : \ - 
of offices, with vault, 159. 
of paint room, 224. 
of pattern shop, 166 
of pattern storage room, 166. 
of power house, 115. 
of power transmission, 116, 117. 
of shop organization, 285. 
of storehouse, 223. 
of Tool Department, 283. 
of tool room, tool storeroom, etc., :-" 
of the works. : : 
Plans for enlarging the works. : 5 



INDEX 



379 



Plans for manufacturing operations, 311. 
Planing Department, 130, 131, 

Planning manufacturing operations, 128. 

the different departments, 129. 
Platform car for yard or shop tracks, 212, 

213. 
Platform for cupolas, 32. 
Polishing and Grinding Department, 133. 
Politics to be avoided in Shop Reading Room, 

3 2 5- 
Portable crane, Franklin, 206. 

Posts, slow-burning construction, 44, 46. 

Power and transmission, 109. 

for carpenter shop, 118. 

for steam hammer, 118. 

for electric lighting, 108. 

for forge shop, 118. 

for foundry, 118. 

for generators, 109 

hack saws in forge shop, 199. 

house, 24. 

house, construction of, 33, 34. 

house, cross-section through, 34. 

house, dimensions of, t,^- 

house floor, 87. 

house, monitor roof for, ^t,. 

house, plan of, 115. 

house, ventilator for, 33. 

necessary for the entire plant, no. 

transmission from engine, 115. 

transmission, plan of, 117. 
Preparing ground for foundations, 68, 71. 
Present condition of manufacturing, 312. 
Pressure upon roofs, 28. 
Problem of apportioning fixed changes, 258. 
Product of pattern shop, 166, 167. 
Progressive manufacturers, 326. 
Progress of orders board, 246, 247. 
Prompt aid necessary in cases of accident, 

321. 
Protective appliances for employees, 321. 
Protecting strips of concrete around build- 
ings, 121. 

wooden walls, 40. 
Puddling earth around foundation walls, 

72. 
Purchased parts, list of, 250. 

requisition for, 252. 

storeroom, 136, 137, 147, 148. 
Purlin supports for roof covering, 29. 

Qualifications of a good cost clerk, 262. 

of a good patternmaker, 300, 301. 
Quartering the log, 80, 302. 

Racks for bar stock in the shop, 202, 203. 
for drying blueprints, 162, 163. 



Racks for long arbors, 139. 

for storing bar stock in forge shop, 201, 
202. 

for storing patterns, 174, 175, 176, 177. 
Railroad track, 20, 22. 
Reading Room, practical utility of, 324. 
Record card for blueprints, 281. 
Recording clock for time cards, 253. 

patterns, 307, 308. 
Registering time clocks, 317. 
Regular channel for official orders, 236. 

routine of orders, 249. 
Relative cost of repairs shown by cost sys- 
tem, 268. 
Repairs on machines, cost of, 268. 
Report of Edward Atkinson, 38. 
Requirements of drawing room equipment, 
150. 

of machine shop equipment, 125. 
Requisites for a good pattern maker, 300, 301. 

of a good system of management, 238, 

2 39- 

for the successful handling of tools, 290. 
Requisition for consumable stock and sup- 
plies, 256, 257. 

for forgings, 251. 

for gray iron castings, 251. 

for materials, 252. 

for purchased parts, 252. 

for stock and material for tool room. 
287, 288. 

for stock and supplies, 295. 

for tools, 256. 
Retrograde movements of stock expensive, 

129. 
Ribbed glass, 52, 57, 100, 103. 
Right and wrong way to cut up a log, 80, 302. 
Roofs, 28. 
Roof coverings, 29. 

of foundry, 32. 

iron or steel, 28. 

one-story machine shop, 50, 52. 

pressure upon, 28. 

saw-tooth construction of, 19, 54, 55, 56, 
57, 58, 59, 60. 

timbers, slow-burning construction, 45, 
49. 

trusses, 29, 30, 55, 58. 

ventilator of forge shop, t,^. 

ventilator of foundry, 32. 

water, disposal of, 121. 
Room for making blueprints, 159, 160. 
Rope transmission, 109. 
Rough stock cases, 146. 
Routine of stock must be continuous and 

progressive, 129. 
Routine of tool room, 285, 286. 



3 8o 



INDEX 



Sand car, 215. 

quality of, for use in mortar, 72, 79, 

. 8 5-. 
sifters in foundry, 184. 

storage shed for, 25, 36. 
Saw-tooth construction of roofs, 19, 54, 57. 

roof building, perspective view, 59. 

roof, building, ventilation of, 57. 

roof, gutters for, 59, 60. 

roof, lighting advantages, 54, 56. 

roof, lighting diagram of, 101. 

roof, steel girders for, 55, 56, 57, 59. 

roof, steel trusses for, 55, 56, 57, 59. 

roof, wood trusses for, 57, 58, 59. 
Scales of drawings, 272, 273. 
Scheme of organization, 240, 241. 
Secret of success in manufacturing, 236. 
Section lining on drawings, 273, 274. 
Segment work in pattern shop, 168. 
Self-sustaining frame, slow-burning con- 
struction, 49. 
Sets of tools, issue of, 293. 

storing of, 292. 
Setting up boilers, in, 112, 113. 

a planer, 230, 231. 
Sewerage system for manufacturing build- 
ings, 120. 
Shafting and belting, 109, 313. 

of the main line, 117. 

supporting the, 30. 
Sham work in building walls, 28. 
Shapers and si otters, 132. 
Sheds for iron and steel chips, 25, 36. 

for stock, 25. 
Sheet piling around foundation piles, 70. 

stock case, 147. 

steel floor plates, 86. 
Shelving in tool-keeping room, 289. 
" Short cuts" of doubtful utility, 281, 285. 
Shop cars, 205. 

Dining Room, 326. 

Dining Room, good influence of, 328. 

Dining Room, organization of, 326, 327. 

offices in the machine shop, 21. 

kitchen equipment, 328. 

Reading Room, 323. 

Reading Room, class of reading matter 
in, 323. 

Reading Room, expense of, 325. 

Reading Room, librarian for, 325. 

Reading Room, organization of, 324. 

Reading Room, utility of, 323. 

racks for bar stock, 202, 203. 

talks to employees, 325. 

tracks, 130, 205. 

tracks and cars, 130, 205, 315, 316. 

tracks, construction of, 206, 207. 



Shop transportation equipment, 204. 

trucks, 316. 
Sickness of employees, 319. 
Side walls, construction and dimensions of, 
28 > 2 9> 33, 34, 35, 3°, 40, 42, 43> 44, 
50, 5i- 

walls of carpenter shop, 35, 36. 

walls of forge shop, 33. 

walls of foundry, 31. 

walls of one-story machine shop, 50, 51. 

walls of slow -burning buildings, 40, 41, 

42, 43> 44- 
Sifters for sand in foundry, 184. 
Simple administration, 321. 
"Simple System" of cost keeping, the so- 
called, 260. 
Single drawing tables, 152, 154. 
Sites for manufacturing plants, 119. 
Sizes of drawings, 271, 272. 
Skylights, 103. 
Slotters and shapers, 132. 
Slow-burning construction, 19, 38. 

cost of, 39. 

dimensions of parts of, 42. 

floor planks for, 44, 45, 48. 

floor timbers for, 44, 46, 48. 

foundation walls, 46. 

gutters for, 45. 

of brick and wood, 42. 

of brick and wood, perspective view, 

43- 
form and dimensions of, 43, 46. 

of wood only, 46, 47. 

proportions of walls, 42, 44. 

roof timbers for, 45, 49. 

what it is, 38. 

windows for, 45. 

wood only, general description of, 48. 

wood only, perspective view, 47. 
Small tools, storing of, 293. 

Parts Department, 130, 133. 

Parts Assembling Department, 130, 134. 
Smoke connections of boilers, 113. 
So-called fire-proof buildings, defects of, 38. 

excessive cost of, 38. 
Soft ground, preparation of, for foundations, 

69. > 
Spacing brickwork for windows, 29. 
Spoiled work, accounting for, 255, 256. 
Special material requisition, 256. 

shop or yard car, 213. 
Square form of chimneys, 63. 

portion of chimneys, horizontal section 
of, 64, 65. 
Stack, or chimney, 61. 
Stand for supporting blueprint frame, 160. 
Standard scales of drawings, 272, 273. 



INDEX 



381 



Standard sizes of drawings, 271, 272. 
Steam connections for boilers, 113, 114. 

engines, types of, 114. 

for driving steam hammer, 200. 

hammer foundations, 74, 75, 76. 

hammer, power for, 118. 

pipes, covering for, 118. 
Steel chimneys, 61. 

chimneys, failure of, 62. 

girders for saw-tooth roof, 55, 56, 57, 59. 

and iron roofs, 28. 

pans for storing small stock, 294. 

racks for tool room, 294. 

tool and stock racks and boxes, 294. 

trusses for saw-tooth roof, 55, 56, 57, 59. 

versus wooden supports, 39. 
Stock and material, transportation of, 204. 

bins, 149. 

ledger card, 295. 

room, 21. 

room management of, 282. 

sheds, 25. 

sheds for sand, coal, and coke, 25, 36. 

transferring from floor to galleries, 30. 

of patterns, 165, 173. 

racks for patterns, 174, 175, 176, 177. 

room for flasks in foundry, 188. 

room for tools, 21. 

sheds, 36. 

sheds, construction of, 36. 

sheds for bar iron and steel, 24. 

sheds, floors for, 36. 

sheds for pig iron, 23. 
Stone, for building foundations, 69, 70, 71. 

for engine foundation, 72, 73, 74. 

for machine foundation, 74, 75, 76. 
Storehouse, 34. 

cross-section through, 35. 

doors of, 35. 

floors of, 86. 

for finished machines, 24, 222. 

lighting system for, 108. 

plan of, 223. 
Storeroom in carpenter shop, 220. 

for finished parts, 21, 134. 

for tools, 283. 
Storing and filing drawings, tracings, and 
blueprints, 278. 

bar stock for forge shop, 201, 202. 

lumber in carpenter shop, 218, 219. 

machines, system for, 223. 

mounted blueprints, 278. 

patterns, 307. 

sets of tools, jigs, etc., 292. 

small stock, 293. 

tools in boxes, 292. 
Straight foundation walls, 71. 



Strength of buildings, 27. 

of floors, 28. 
Stone and concrete floors, 78. 
Stippled glass in windows, 99, 103. 
Stretcher courses in brickwork, 28. 
Success in manufacturing, the secret of, 236. 
Superintendent, 241, 242. 

office of, 245. 

orders of, 248. 
Supplies, consumable, 297. 

for Emergency Room, 322. 
Supply requisition, 296. 
Supports for floors, 40, 44, 46, 48, 78, 82, 

87. 
Supporting shafting, 30, 33, 36. 

the inner core of chimney, 66. 
Suspension of dues, in Aid Association, 320. 
Symbols for designating machines, 304. 

on drawings, 275. 

on patterns, 277. 
System for drafting room, 270. 

for filing drawings and tracings, 156, 

157- 

for handling patterns, 307, 308. 

for issuing and recovering tools, 291. 

of heating and ventilating, 88. 

of lighting, 99, 104, 105. 

of locating index cards in drawer, 280. 

of power and transmission, 109. 

of shop transportation, 204. 

of storing machines, 223. 

of storing patterns, 173, 174, 175, 176, 

177- 

Tar paper for roofs, 29. 
Temperature of the air in shops, 97, 98. 
Tempering and case-hardening, 192. 
Technical publications, 323, 324. 
The "Shop Tree," 235. 

"Simple system" of cost keeping, 260. 
Three grand factors in manufacturing, 235. 
Timber support for foundations, 69, 70. 

work of slow-burning construction, of 
wood only, 48. 
Time, accounting for, 252, 253. 

accounts, much care necessary, 317. 

accounts in tool room, 286. 

card, 254. 

card in pattern shop, 309. 

card in tool room, 287. 

clock, registering, 317. 

distribution of, 254. 

or hourly plan, 252, 253. 

keeping in the drafting room, 271. 

recording clock, 252, 253. 
Titles on drawings, 274, 275. 
Tool carriers, 141, 143, 144, 145, 316. 



382 



INDEX 



Tool carriers, horizontal system of, 143, 144, 

i45> 3 l6 - 
carriers, vertical system of, 144, 145, 146, 

316. 

cases or cabinets, 140. 

check board, 289, 290. 

department, plan of, 283. 

distributing rooms, 135. 

keeping room, shelving in, 289. 

making department, description of, 138. 

making room, 21. 
Tools in sets, issue of, 293. 
Tool room boxes of steel, 294. 

equipment of, 283. 

expenses of, 267. 

foreman's office, 283, 285. 

foreman's orders, 286, 287, 288. 

location of, 283. 

management, 282. 

manufacturing work in, 288. 

material and cost card, 286. 

necessary, 316. 

partitions of, 288, 289. 

racks and boxes of steel, 294. 

routine of, 285, 286. 

stock ledger card, 295. 

stock and material requisition, 287, 
288. 

stock and supply requisition, 295. 

time account, 286. 

time card, 287. 

storage room, 21. 

storeroom, 139, 283. 

work done in the shop, 287. 
Tools, permanent issue of, 292. 

requisition for, 256. 

storing small, 293. 
Tracing paper, use of, 271. 
Tracings, filing case for, 155, 156. 

materials for, 271. 

storing and filing, 278. 
Track for shop, cross-section of, 210. 

for yard, cross-sections of, 209, 210. 
Tram cars, construction of, 212, 214, 215. 

end elevation of, 212. 

side elevation of, 212. 

tracks, 24, 35, 315. 

tracks for carpenter shop, 22, 35. 

tracks for forge shop, 22, 193, 194. 

tracks for foundry, 22, 179, 180, 181. 

tracks for galleries, 130. 

tracks for machine shop, 22, 130. 

tracks for storehouse, 22, 35. 

tracks for yard, 22, 25. 
Transfer car, 35. 

Transferring stock and material, 30. 
Translucent material for skylights, 103. 



Transmission of power, systems for, 109, 313. 

by electricity, 109. 

by ropes, 109. 

by shafting and belting, 109. 

plan of, 117. 
Transmitting power from engine, 115. 
Transportation facilities, classification of, 
204. 

of materials, expense of, 267. 

of pig iron, 179. 

of small tools, 142. 

of stock and material, 313, 315, 316. 

system of, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 
210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216. 
Traveling cranes, 23, 25, 29, 206. 

in building with saw-tooth roof, 56. 

in foundry, power for, 182. 

in one-story machine shop, 50, 51. 

operating, 29, 205. 
Trolley hoists, 24, 35, 183, 187, 201. 
Trucks for shop use, 315, 316. 
Trusses for supporting roof, 29, 31, 32, 55, 

57, 58, 59- . 
Tumbling barrels in foundry, 182, 185. 
Turning department for heavy work, 130, 

132. 
Turret lathes in forge shop, 200. 
Turntable for shop and yard tracks, 211. 
Types of chimneys, 61. 
of steam boilers, no. 

United States army system, 240, 241. 
Unity among employees, 326. 
Utility of Shop Dining Room, 327. 

Value of Emergency Department, 323. 

Varnishing patterns, 307. 

Vault for drawing room, 157, 158. 

for offices, 159. 
Ventilating and heating system, 88. 

floors, 83. 

wooden columns, 41. 

of buildings, 27. 
Ventilation of shop with saw-tooth roof, 57. 
Ventilator for foundry, 32. 

for machine shop, 31. 

for power house, ^t,. 

or monitor roof, one-story machine shop, 

5 2 - 
Vertical section of chimney, 64. 

system of tool carriers, 144, 145, 146. 

Walls, brick, construction of, 28, 29, t,^, 34, 

35>.3 6 > 4o, 42, 43, 44, 5°, 5 1 - 
of chimneys, 63. 
of forge shop, ^^. 
foundation, 28. 



INDEX 



383 



Walls, of one-story machine shop, 50. 

of slow-burning construction, dimensions 
of, 42. 

of slow-burning construction of wood 
only, 48. 
Wall plates, 43. 

Warping of lumber, 79, 80, 302. 
Wash rooms, 23, 24, 26, ^^. 

and water-closet floors, 87, 226, 227. 

and water-closets for machine shop, 225, 
226. 

in foundry, 188, 189, 190. 

in forge shop, 203. 

heating system for, 92, 97. 
Washing sinks in foundry, 188, 189. 
Water and steam the original power, no. 

closets, 24, 26, 33. 

closets for drawing room, 153, 157. 

closets for forge shop, 203. 

closets for foundry, 180, 188, 189. 

closets for machine shop, 225, 226. 

pipes from roofs, 120, 121. 
Waterways in yard, 122. 
Windows, 28, 36, 45, 52, 53, 99, 100, 101, 
102, 103, 104, 151. 

Benedict's construction of, 102, 103, 104. 

of carpenter shop, 36. 

for slow-burning construction, 45. 



Windows, in drawing room, 151. 

high, 100. 

kinds of glass for, 99, 103. 

location of, 100. 

low, 100. 

in machine shop, 101. 

in one-story machine shop, 52, 53. 

stippled glass for, 93, 103. 
Wooden beam supports for floors, 44, 46, 48, 

78, 79- 

columns, ventilating, 41. 

walls, protection of, 40. 

versus steel supports, 39. 
Wood fillets, 303, 305. 

trusses for saw-tooth roofs, 57, 58, 59. 
What slow-burning construction is, 38. 
Wheels for tram cars, 213. 
Work of an Emergency Department, 321. 

of the forge shop, 191, 192. 
Works manager, 241. 

Yard track, construction of, 206, 207. 
crane, 23. 

lighting of the, 108. >. 

paving of, 121. 
space needed, 26. 
waterways in, 122. 



ADDITIONAL MATTER IN SECOND REVISED AND 
ENLARGED EDITION 



Accounts, classification of, 349 
Administration expense, 351 
Analysis, preparatory, 329 
Attachments to machines, 324 

Betterment work, classification of, 329 
Blanks, caution against using too many, 364 
Bonus system, 340 
Boring mill, increasing efficiency of, 332 

vertical, improving design of, 332 

work for, 331 

Calculation of time to machine a piece, 342 

Card forms, color of, 366 

Careful examination of conditions, 367 

Complex problems, 348 

Component factors of expense, 351 

Consecutive operations on a piece, 343 

Cost systems and shop management, 359 

inauguration of, 360 

requirements of an efficient, 359 

so-called, 358 

Departmental efficiency, 356 



Dissatisfaction of workmen, causes of, 341 
Drawings, value of better, 339 
Drills, work for, 331 

Efficiency, classification of factors, 329 

departmental, 356 

increasing by direct methods, 339 

the question of, 329 
Examination of conditions necessary, 366 
Expense burden, 350 

Factory cost, 351 

Fixed charges, 350 

Floor rate, definition of, 355 

how made up, 361 
Foremen, selection of, 347 

Gear cutters, work for, 331 

General office, expense accounts, 362 

Production Order Card, 364 

orders, 363 
Grinders, work for, 331 

Heating, accounting for, 361 
Hourly Plan, 352 



3§4 



INDEX 



Idle machines, 356 

elimination of, 357 
Increasing efficiency by direct methods, 339 

of men, 339 

of machines, 329 

Labor cost, 351 
Lathes, work for, 331 
Lighting, accounting for, 361 

Machines, arrangement of, 334 

classification of, 330 

idle, 356 

improving design of, 332 

rate, 355 
how made up, 362 

re-arrangement of, 335 
Man rate, 356 

how made up, 362 
Manufacturing cost, 351 
Market price, 351 
Material cost, 351 

accounting for, 362 
Men, increasing efficiency of, 339 
Methods for increasing efficiency of men, 339 
Milling machines, work for, 330 

Non-productive labor, 362 

Operating expenses, 349 
Operation sheet, 346 
Orders, how issued, 363 
Overhead Burden, 348 

relation to Flat Cost, 348 

Payments, value of better systems of, 339 
Percentage Plan, 353 
Personal Instruction, value of, 339 
Piece Work Card, 345 

Plan, 340 

price, determination of, 341 
Planers, work for, 330 



Power, accounting for, 361 

cost of, 355 
Production Order, General, 364 

special, 365 
Productive Labor, 363 
Profit, 351 
Preparatory Analysis, 329 

Rack Cutters, work for, 331 
Re-arrangement of machines for greater 

efficiency, 336 
Real Estate, 361 

Requisition for Supplies Card, 366 
Requirements of a Cost System, 359 

Sales Department, 363 

accounting of, 363 
Sanitary conditions, 347 
Shapers, work for, 330 
Selling expenses, 351 
Serial numbers, 366 
Shop condition, 347 

management and cost systems, 359 

mates, a good class of, 347 

Operation Sheet, 346 
Special Production Order Card, 365 
Standard Time for machining a piece, 344 
Sub Production Order Card, 365 
Supplies, Requisition for, 366 
Supplemental Burden, 350 
Symbols, for Order Cards, 366 

Time Study Plan, 342 

Card, 344 
Tools and Fixtures, accounting for, 362 

better adapted to work, 334 

grinders, 334 

holders for machines, 334 
Transportation facilities, 336 

shop, accounting for, 361 

Working for a rate, 341 



CATALOGUE 

of the latest 

Practical, Scientific, Technical 



and 



Automobile Books 



<M*< 




PRACTICAL BOOKS FOR PRACTICAL MEN 

Each Book in this Catalogue is written by an 
Expert and is written so you can understand it 



PUBLISHED BY 

The Norman W. Henley Publishing Co. 

2 West 45th Street, New York, U. S. A. 

Established 1890 
Any Book in this Catalogue sent prepaid on receipt of price 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Air Brakes 18, 20 

Arithmetic 12, 21, 27 

Automobile Books 3, 4, 5 

Automobile Charts 5 

Automobile Ignition Systems 4 

Automobile Lighting 4 

Automobile Questions and Answers „ . 4 

Automobile Repairing 3 

Automobile Starting Systems 4 

Automobile Trouble Charts 5 

Bevel Gear 16 

Boiler Room Chart 7 

Brazing 6 

Cams 16 

Carburetion Trouble Chart 6 

Change Gear 16 

Charts 5, 6 

Coal 19 

Combustion 19 

Compressed Air 8 

Concrete 8, 9, 10 

Concrete for Farm Use 9 

Concrete for Shop Use 9 

Cosmetics 23 

Cyclecars 5 

Dictionary 10 

Dies 10, 11 

Drawing 11 

Drawing for Plumbers 24 

Drop Forging 11 

Dynamo Building 12 

Electric Switchboards 12, 14 

Electric Toy Making 12 

Electric Wiring 12, 13 

Electricity 12, 13, 14 

E-T Air Brake 20 

Factory Management 14 

Ford Automobile 3 

Ford Trouble Chart 5 

Formulas and Recipes 25 

Fuel 15 

Gas Engine Construction 16 

Gas Engines 15, 16 

Gas Tractor 29 

Gearing and Cams 16 

Heating 28 

Horse Power Chart 7 

Hot Water Heating 28 

House Wiring 13 

Hydraulics 17 

Ignition Systems 4 

Ignition Trouble Chart 6 

India Rubber 26 

Interchangeable Manufacturing 21 

Inventions 17 

Knots 17 

Lathe Work 17 

Link Motions 19 

Liquid Air 18 



PAGE 

Locomotive Boilers 19 

Locomotive Breakdowns 19 

Locomotive Engineering 18, 19, 20 

Machinist Books 21, 22 

Manual Training 23 

Marine Engineering 23 

Marine Gasoline Engines 16 

Mechanical Drawing n 

Mechanical Movements 22 

Metal Work 10 

Motorcycles 5 

Patents 17 

Pattern Making 23 

Perfumery 23 

Perspective 11 

Plumbing 24, 25 

Punches , 10 

Producer Gas 16 

Questions and Answers on Automobile .... 4 

Questions on Heating ' 28 

Railroad Accidents 20 

Railroad Charts 7 

Recipe Book 25 

Repairing Automobiles 3 

Rope Work 17 

Rubber 26 

Rubber Stamps 26 

Saw Filing 26 

Saws, Management of 26 

Sheet Metal Works 10, 11 

Shop Construction 21 

Shop Management 21 

Shop Practice 21 

Shop Tools 22 

Sketching Paper 11 

Soldering 6 

Splices and Rope Work 17 

Steam Engineering 26, 27 

Steam Heating 28 

Steel 28, 29 

Submarine Chart 7 

Switch Boards 12, 14 

Tapers 18 

Telegraphy, Wireless 14 

Telephone 14 

Thread Cutting 21 

Tool Making 21 

Toy Making 12 

Train Rules 20 

Tractive Power Chart 7 

Tractor, Gas 29 

Vacuum Heating 28 

Valve Setting 19 

Ventilation . , 28 

Waterproofing 10 

Wireless Telegraphy 13 

Wiring 12, 13, 14 

Wiring Diagrams 12 

Walschaert Valve Gear 20 



Any of these books promptly sent prepaid to any 
address in the world on receipt of price. 



How to remit. — By Postal Money Order, Express Money Order, 

Bank Draft or Registered Letter. 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL ROOKS 

AUTOMOBILES AND MOTORCYCLES 

THE MODERN GASOLINE AUTOMOBILE— ITS DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, 
MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR By Victor W. Page, M.E. 

The latest and most complete treatise on the Gasoline Automobile ever issued. Written 
in simple language by a recognized authority, familiar with every branch of the auto- 
mobile industry. Free from technical terms. Everything is explained so simply 
that anyone of average intelligence may gain a comprehensive knowledge of the 
gasoline automobile. The information is up-to-date and includes, in addition to an 
exposition of principles of construction and description of all types of automobiles and 
their components, valuable money-saving hints on the care and operation of motor- 
cars propelled by internal combustion engines. Among some of the subjects treated 
might be mentioned: Torpedo and other symmetrical body forms designed to reduce 
air resistance; sleeve valve, rotary valve and other types of silent motors; increasing 
tendency to favor worm-gear power-transmission; universal application of magneto 
ignition; development of automobile electric-lighting systems: block motors; under- 
slung chassis; application of practical self-starters; long stroke and offset cylinder 
motors; latest automatic lubrication systems; silent chains for valve operation and 
change-speed gearing ; the use of front wheel brakes and many other detail refinements. 
By a careful study of the pages of this book one can gain practical knowledge of auto- 
mobile construction that will save time, money and worry. The book tells you just 
what to do, how and when to do it. Nothing has been omitted, no detail has been 
slighted. Every part of the automobile, its equipment, accessories, tools, supplies, 
spare parts necessary, etc., have been discussed comprehensively. If you are or 
intend to become a motorist, or are in any way interested in the modern GasoUne 
Automobile, this is a book you cannot afford to be without. Over 850 6x9 pages — ■ 
and more than 600 new and specially made detail illustrations, as well as many full- 
page and double-page plates, showing all parts of the automobile. Including 12 large 
folding plates. Price $2.50 

WHAT IS SAID OF THIS BOOK: 

"It is the best book on the Automobile seen up to date." — J. H. Pile, Associate Editor 

Automobile Trade Journal. 

"Every Automobile Owner has use for a book of this character." — The Tradesman. 

"This book is superior to any treatise heretofore published on the subject." — The 

Inventive Age. 

" We know of no other volume that is so complete in all its departments, and in which 

the wide field of automobile construction with its mechanical intricacies is so plainly 

handled, both in the text and in the matter of illustrations." — The Motorist. 

"The book is very thorough, a careful examination failing to disclose any point in 

connection with the automobile, its care and repair, to have been overlooked." — ■ 

Iron Age. 

"Mr. Page has done a great work, and benefit to the Automobile Field." — W. C. 

Hasford, Mgr. Y. M. C. A. Automobile School, Boston, Mass. 

"It is just the kind of a book a motorist needs if he wants to understand his car." — 

American Thresherman. 

THE MODEL T FORD CAR, ITS CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND REPAIR. 

By Victor W. Page, M.E. 

This is a complete instruction book. All parts of the Ford Model T Car are described 
and illustrated; the construction is fully described and operating principles made 
clear to everyone. Every Ford owner needs this practical book. You don't have to 
guess about the construction or where the trouble is, as it shows how to take all parts 
apart and how to locate and fix all faults. The writer, Mr. Page, has operated a Ford 
car for four years and writes from actual knowledge. Among the contents are: 
1. The Ford Car. Its Parts and Their Functions. 2. The Engine and Auxiliary 
Groups. How the Engine Works — The Fuel Supply System — The Carburetor — 
Making the Ignition Spark — Cooling and Lubrication. 3. Details of Chassis. 
Change Speed Gear — Power Transmission — Differential Gear Action — Steering Gear 
— Front Axle — Frame and Springs — Brakes. 4. How to Drive and Care for the Ford. 
The Control System Explained — Starting the Motor — Driving the Car — Locating 
Roadside Troubles — Tire Repairs — Oiling the Chassis — Winter Care of Car. 5. Sys- 
tematic Location of Troubles and Remedies. Faults in Engine — Faults in Carburetor 
— Ignition Troubles — Cooling and Lubrication System Defects — Adjustment of 
Transmission Gear — General Chassis Repairs. 95 illustrations. 300 pages. Two 
large folding plates. Price $1.00 

AUTOMOBILE REPAIRING MADE EASY. By Victor W. Page, M.E. 

A comprehensive, practical exposition of every phase of modern automobile repairing 
practice. Outlines every process incidental to motor car restoration. Gives plans for 
workshop construction, suggestions for equipment, power needed, machinery and tools 
necessary to carry on the business successfully. Tells how to overhaul and repair all 
parts of all automobiles. Everything is explained so simply that motorists and students 
can acquire a full working knowledge of automobile repairing. This work starts with 

3 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

the engine, then considers carhuretion. ignition, cooling and lubrication systems. The 
clutch, change speed gearing and transmission system are considered in detail. Contains 
instructions for repairing all types of axles, steering gears and. other cha.«ad» parts. 
Many tables, short cuts in figuring and, rules of practice are given for the mechanic 
Explains fully valve and magneto timing, 'tuning" engines, systematic location of 
trouble, repair of ball and roller bearings, shop kinks, first aid to injured and a multi- 
tude of subjects of interest to all in the garage and repair business. 
This book contains special instructions on electric starting, lighting and ignition systems, 
tire repairing and rebuilding, autogenous voiding, brazing and soldering, heat treatment of 
steel, latest timing practice, eight and tic e toe-cylinder motors, etc 5$£x8. Cloth. 1056 
pages, 1,000 illustrations, 11 folding plates. Price S3. 00 

WHAT IS SAID OF THIS BOOK: 

" 'Automobile Repairing Made Easy' is the best book on the subject I have ever seen 
and the only book I ever saw that is of any value in a garage." — Fred Jeffrey, Martins- 
burg, Neb. 

'I wish to thank you for sending me a copy of 'Automobile Repairing Made E isy I 
do not think it could be excelled." — S. W. Gisriel, Director of Instruction, Y. M. C . A . , 
Philadelphia, Pa. 

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS RELATING TO MODERN AUTOMOBILE CON- 
STRUCTION, DRIVING AND REPAIR. By Victor W. Page. M.E. 

practical self -instructor for students, mechanics and motorists, consisting of thirty- 
six lessons in the form of questions and answers, written with special reference to the 
requirements of the non-technical reader desiring easily understood, explanatory 
matter relating to all branches of automobihhg. The subject-matter is absolutely 
correct and explained in simple language. If you can't answer all of Hie following 
questions, you need this work. The answers to these and nearly 2000 more are to 
be found in its pages. Give the name of all important parts of an automobile and 
describe their functions? Describe action of latest types of kerosene carburetors? 
What is the difference between a "double" ignition system and a "dual" ignition 
system? INanie parts of an induction coil? How are valves timed? "What is an 
electric motor starter and how does it work? What are advantages of worm drive 
gearing? Name all important types of ball and roller bearings? What is a "three- 
quarter" floating axle? What is a two-speed axle? What is the Vulcan electric gear 
shift? Name the causes of lost power in automobiles? Describe all noises due to 
deranged mechanism and give causes? How can you adjust a carburetor by the 
color of the exhaust gases? What causes "popping" in the carburetor? What tools 
and supplies are needed to equip a car? How do you drive various makes of cars? 
What is a differential lock and where is it used? Name different systems of wire 
wheel construction, etc., etc. A popular work at a popular price. 53^x7 J£. Cloth. 
650 pages, 350 illustrations, 3 folding plates. Price $1.50 

WHAT IS SAID OF THIS BOOK: 
"If you own a car — get this book." — The Gtassmofker. 

"Mr. Page has the faculty of making difficult subjects plain and understandable." — 
Bristol Press. 

"We can name no writer better qualified to prepare a book of instruction on auto- 
mobiles than Mr. Victor W. Page."" — Scientific American. 

"The best automobile catechism that has appeared." — Automobile Topics. 

"There are few men, even with long experience, who will not find this book useful. 
Great pains have been taken to make it accurate. Special recommendation must be 
given to the illustrations, which have been made specially for the work. Such ex- 
cellent books as this greatly assist in fully understanding your automobile." — En- 
gineering News. 

Just Published — A New Book on Automobile Electricity. 

MODERN STARTING, LIGHTING AND IGNITION SYSTEMS. Bt V:cro?. 

W. Page, M.E. 

This practical volume has been written with special reference to the requirements of the 
non-technical reader desiring easily understood, explanatory matter, relating to all 
types of automobile ignition, starting and lighting systems. It can be understood by 
anyone, even without electrical knowledge, because elementary electrical prin ciple s are 
considered before any attempt is made to discuss features rf the various systems. 
These basic principles are clearly stated and illustrated with simple diagrams. All the 
leading systems of starting, lighting and ignition have b e cn described and illustrated with 
the co-operation of the experts employed by the manufacturers. Wiring diagrams are 
shown in both technical and non-technical forms. All symbols are fully explained. It 
is a comprehensive review of modern starting and ignition system practice, and includes 
a complete exposition of storage battery construction, care and repair. All types of 
starting motors, generators, magnetos, and all ignition or lighting system units are 
fully explained. The systems of cars already in m I as those that are to come 

in i916 are considered. Every person in the automobile business needs this volume. 
5Mx7M. Cloth. 530 pages, 297 illustrations, 3 folding plates. Price . . $1.50 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

MOTORCYCLES, SIDE CARS AND CYCLECARS, THEIR CONSTRUCTION, 
MANAGEMENT AND REPAIR. By Victor W. Page, M.E. 

The only complete work published for the motorcyclist and cyclecarist. Describes 
fully all leading types of machines, their design, construction, maintenance, operation 
and repair. This treatise outlines fully the operation of two- and four-cycle power 
plants and all ignition, carburetion and lubrication systems In detail. Describes all 
representative types of free engine clutches, variable speed gears and power trans- 
mission systems. Gives complete instructions for operating and repairing all types. 
Considers fully electric self-starting and lighting systems, all types of spring frames 
and springs forks and shows leading control methods. For those desiring technical 
information a complete series of tables and many formulae to assist in designing are 
included. The work tells how to figure power needed to climb grades, overcome air 
resistance and attain high speeds. It shows how to select gear ratios for various 
weights and powers, how to figure braking efficiency required, gives sizes of belts and 
chains to transmit power safely, and shows how to design sprockets, belt pulleys, etc. 
This work also includes complete formuhe for figuring horse-power, shows how dyna- 
mometer tests are made, defines relative efficiency of air- and water-cooled engines, plain 
and anti-friction bearings and many other data of a practical, helpful, engineering 
nature. Remember that you get this information in addition to the practical de- 
scription and instructions which alone are worth several times the price of the book. 
550 pages. 350 speciaUy made illustrations, 5 folding plates. Cloth. Price $1.50 

WHAT IS SAID OP THIS BOOK: 
" Here is a book that should be in the cycle repairer's kit." — American Blacksmith. 
" The best way for any rider to thoroughly understand his machine, is to get a copy 
of this book; it is worth many times its price." — Pacific Motorcyclist. 

AUTOMOBILE AND MOTORCYCLE CHARTS 

CHART. GASOLINE ENGINE TROUBLES MADE EASY— A CHART SHOW- 
ING SECTIONAL VIEW OF GASOLINE ENGINE. Compiled by Victor 
W. Page, M.E. 

It shows clearly all parts of a typical four-cylinder gasoline engine of the four-cycle 
type. It outlines distinctly all parts liable to give trouble and also details the de- 
rangements apt to interfere -vith smooth engine operation. 

Valuable to students, motorists, mechanics, repairmen, garagemen, automobile sales- 
men, chauffeurs, motorboat owners, motor-truck and tractor drivers, aviators, motor- 
cyclists, and all others who have to do with gasoline power plants. 
It simplifies location of aU engine troubles, and while it will prove invaluable to the 
novice, it can be used to advantage by the more expert. • It should be on the walls of 
every public and private garage, automobile repair shop, clubhouse or school. It can 
be carried in the automobile or pocket with ease, and will insure against loss of time 
when engine trouble manifests itself. 

This sectional view of engine is a complete review of all motor troubles. It is prepared 
by a practical motorist for all who motor. More information for the money than ever 
before offered. No details omitted. Size 25x38 inches. Securely mailed on receipt 
of 25 cents 

CHART. LOCATION OF FORD ENGINE TROUBLES MADE EASY. Com- 
piled by Victor W. Page, M.E. 

This shows clear sectional views depicting all portions of the Ford power plant and 
auxiliary groups. It outlines clearly all parts of the engine, fuel supply system, igni- 
tion group and cooling system, that are apt to give trouble, detailing all derangements 
that are liable to make an engine lose power, start hard or work irregularly. This 
chart is valuable to students, owners, and drivers, as it simplifies location of all engine 
faults. Of great advantage as an instructor for the novice, it can be used equally well 
by the more expert as a work of reference and review. It can be carried in the tool- 
box or pocket with ease and will save its cost in labor ehminated the first time engine 
trouble manifests itself. Prepared with special reference to the average man's needs 
and is a practical review of all motor troubles because it is based on the actual ex- 
perience of an automobile engineer-mechanic with the mechanism the chart describes. 
It enables the non-technical owner or operator of a Ford car to locate engine de- 
rangements by systematic search, guided by easily recognized symptoms instead of by 
guesswork. It makes the average owner independent of the roadside repair shop 
when touring. Must be seen to be appreciated. Size 25x38 inches. Printed on 
heavy bond paper. Price 25 cents 

CHART. LUBRICATION OF THE MOTOR CAR CHASSIS. Compiled by 
Victor W. Page, M.E. 

This chart presents the plan view of a typical six-cylinder chassis of standard design 
and all parts are clearly indicated that demand oil, also the frequency with which they 
must be lubricated and the kind of oil to use. A practical chart for all interested in 
motor-car maintenance. Size 24x38 inches. Price 25 cents 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

CHART. LOCATION OF CARBURETION TROUBLES MADE EASY. Com- 
piled by Victor W. Page, M.E. 

This chart shows all parts of a typical pressure :eei fuel ?urrlT system ani =rv~ 
causes of trouble, how to locate defects and means of remedying th*™ size 24x38 
inches. Price 25 cents 

CHART. LOCATION OF IGNITION SYSTEM TROUBLES MADE EASY. 
Compiled by Victor W. Page, M.E. 

In this diagram all parts of a typical double ignition system using batterv and magneto 
current are shown, and suggestions are given for readily finding ignition troubles and 

eliminating them when found. Size 24x33 inches. Price 25 cents 

CHART. LOCATION OF COOLING AND LUBRICATION SYSTEM FAULTS. 

Compiled by Victor W. Page. M.E. 

This composite diagram shows a typical automobile power plant using pump circulated 
water-cooling system and the most popular lubrication method. Gives suggestions 
for curing all overheating and loss of power faults due to faulty action of the oiling 

or cooling group. Size 2lx3S inches. Price 25 cents 

CHART. MOTORCYCLE TROUBLES MADE EASY. Compiled bv Victor 

W. Page. M.E. 

A chart showing sectional view of a single-cylinder gasoline engine. This chart 
simplifies location of all power-plant troubles. A single-cylnder motor is shown for 
simplicity. It outlines distinctly all parts liable to give trouble and also details the 
derangements apt to interfere with smooth engine operation. This chart will prove 
of value to all who have to do with the operation, repair or sale of motorcycles. Is o 
details omitted. Size 30x20 inches. Price . " 25 cents 

BRAZING AND SOLDERING 



BRAZING AND SOLDERING. By Jaiss F. Hobast. 

The only book that shows you just how to handle any job of brazing or soldering that 
comes along: it tells you what mixture to use. how to make a furnace if you need one. 
Pull of valuable ki nks . The fifth edition of this book has just been published, and to 
it much new matter and a large number of tested formulae for all kinds of solders and 
fluxes have been added. Illustrated 25 cents 

CHART S 

GASOLINE ENGINE TROUBLES MADE EASY— A CHART SHOWING SEC. 

TIONAL VIEW OF GASOLINE ENGINE. Compiled by Victor W. Page. 

It shows clearly all parts of a typical four-cylinder gasoline engine of the four-cycle 
type. It outlines distinctly all parts liable to give trouble and also details the de- 
rangements apt to interfere with smooth engine operation. 

Valuable to students, motorists, mechanics, repairmen, garagemen. automobile sales- 
men, chauffeurs, motor-boat owners, motor-truck and tractor drivers, aviators, motor- 
cyclists, and all others who have to do with gasoline power plants. 
I: simplifies location of all engine troubles, and while it will prove invaluable to the 
novice, it can be used to advantage by the more expert. It should be on the walls of 
every public and private garage, automobile repair shop, club house or school. It can 
be carried in the automobile or pocket with ease and will insure against loss of time 
when engine trouble manifests itself. 

This sectional view of engine is a complete review of all motor troubles. It is pre- 
pared by a practical motorist for all who motor. No details omitted. Size 25x38 
inches 25 cents 

LUBRICATION OF THE MOTOR CAR CHASSIS. 

This chart presents the plan view of a typical sis-cylinder chassis of standard design 
and all parts are clearly indicated that demand oil. also the frequency with which they 
must be lubricated and the kind of oil to use. A practical chart for all interested in 
motor-car maintenance. Size 24x3S inches. Price 25 cents 

LOCATION OF CARBURETION TROUBLES MADE EASY. 

This chart shows all parts of a typical pressure feed fuel supply system ani ; - -? 
causes of trouble, how to locate defects and means of remedying them. Size 24x3 B 
inches. Price 25 cents 

LOCATION OF IGNITION SYSTEM TROUBLES MADE EASY. 

In this chart all parts of a typical double ignition system using battery and magneto 
current are shown and suggestions are given for readily finding ignition troubles and 
eliminating them when found. Size 2 4x33 inches. Price 25 cents 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

LOCATION OF COOLING AND LUBRICATION SYSTEM FAULTS. 

This composite chart shows a typical automobile power plant using pump circulated 
water-cooling system and the most popular lubrication method. Gives suggestions 
for curing all overheating and loss of power faults due to fault y action of the oiling or 
cooling group. Size 24x38 inches. Price 26 cents 

MOTORCYCLE TROUBLES MADE EASY— A CHART SHOWING SECTIONAL 
VIEW OF SINGLE - CYLINDER GASOLINE ENGINE. Compiled by 
Victor W. Page. 

This chart simplifies location of all power-plant troubles, and will prove invaluable to 
all who have to do with the operation, repair or sale of motorcycles. No details 
omitted. Size 25x38 inches. Price 25 cents 

LOCATION OF FORD ENGINE TROUBLES MADE EASY. Compiled by 
Victor W. Page, M.E. 

This shows clear sectional views depicting all portions of the Ford power plant and 
auxiliary groups. It outlines clearly all parts of the engine, fuel supply system, 
ignition group and cooling system, that are apt to give trouble, detailing all derange- 
ments that are liable to make an engine lose power, start hard or work irregularly. This 
chart is valuable to students, owners, and drivers, as it simplifies location of all engine 
faults. Of great advantage as an instructor for the novice, it can be used equally well 
by the more expert as a work of reference and review. It can be carried in the tool- 
box or pocket with ease and will save its cost in labor eliminated the first time engine 
trouble manifests itself. Prepared with special reference to the average man's needs 
and is a practical review of all motor troubles because it is based on the actual ex- 
perience of an automobile engineer-mechanic with the mechanism the chart describes. 
It enables the non-technical owner or operator of a Ford car to locate engine de- 
rangements by systematic search, guided by easily recognized symptoms instead of by 
guesswork. It makes the average owner independent of the roadside repair shop 
when touring. Must be seen to be appreciated. Size 25x38 inches. Printed on heavy 
bond paper. Price 25 cents 

MODERN SUBMARINE CHART — WITH 200 PARTS NUMBERED AND 
NAMED. 

A cross-section view, showing clearly and distinctly all the interior of a Submarine of 
the latest type. You get more information from this chart, about the construction and 
operation of a Submarine, than in any other way. No details omitted — everything 
is accurate and to scale. It is absolutely correct in every detail, having been approved 
by Naval Engineers. All the machinery and devices fitted in a modern Submarine 
Boat are shown, and to make the engraving more readily understood, all the features 
are shown in operative form, with Officers and Men in the act of performing the duties 
assigned to them in service conditions. This CHART IS REALLY AN ENCYCLO- 
PEDIA OF A SUBMARINE. . . 25 cents 

BOX CAR CHART. 

A chart showing the anatomy of a box'car, having every part of the car numbered and 
its proper name given in a reference list 25 cents 

GONDOLA CAR CHART. 

A chart showing the anatomy of a gondola car, having every part>of the car numbered 
and its proper reference name given in a reference list 25 cents 

PASSENGER-CAR CHART. 

A chart showing the anatomy of a passenger-car, having every part of the car numbered 
and its proper name given in a reference list 25 cents 

STEEL HOPPER BOTTOM COAL CAR. 

A chart showing the anatomy of a steel Hopper Bottom Coal Car, having every part 
of the car numbered and its proper name given in a reference list 25 cents 

TRACTIVE POWER CHART. 

A chart whereby you can find the tractive power or drawbar pull of any locomotive 
without making a figure. Shows what cylinders are equal, how driving wheels and 
steam pressure affect the power. "What sized engine you need to exert a given drawbar 
pull or anything you desire in this line 50 cents 

HORSE-POWER CHART 

Shows the horse-power of any stationary engine without calculation. No matter what 
the cylinder diameter of stroke, the steam pressure of cut-off, the revolutions, or 
whether condensing or non-condensing, it's all there. Easy to use, accurate, and 
saves time and calculations. Especially useful to engineers and designers. 50 cents 

BOILER ROOM CHART. By Geo. L. Fowler. 

A chart — size 14x28 inches — showing in isometric perspective the mechanisms be- 
longing in a modern boiler room. The various parts are shown broken or removed, 
so that the internal construction is fully illustrated. Each part is given a reference 
number, and these, with the corresponding name, are given in a glossary printed at 
the sides. This chart is really a dictionary of the boiler room — the names of more than 
200 parts being given 25 cents 

7 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

COMPRESSED AIR 

COMPRESSED AIR IN ALL ITS APPLICATIONS. By Gabdkbb D. Hiscox. 

This is the most com] >ook on the subject of Air that has ever been issued, and its 

thirty-five chapters include about every phase of the subject one can think of. It may 
be called an encyclopedia of compressed air. It is written by an expert, who, in its 
665 pages, has dealt "with the subject in a comprehensive manner, no phase of it being 
omitted. Includes the physical properties of air from a vacuum to its highest pressure, 
.hermodynamics. compression, transmission and uses as a motive power, in the 
Operation of Stationary and Portable Machinery, in Mining. Air Tools. Air Lifts, 
Pumping of Water. Acids, and Oils: the Air Blast for Cleaning and Painting, the 
Sand Blast and its _ jind the Ivumerous Appliances in which Compressed Air is 

a Most Convenient and Economical Transmitter of Power for Mechanical Work. 
Railway Propulsion. Refrigeration, and the Various D see - . which Compressed Air 
has been applied. Includes forty-four tables of the physical properties of air, its 
compression, expansion, and volumes required for various' kinds of work, and a list 
of patents on compressed air from 1S75 to date. Over 500 illustrations, 5th Edition, 
revised and enlarged. Cloth bound. $5.00. Half Morocco, price .... $6.50 

CONCRETE 

JUST PUBLISHED— CONCRETE WORKERS' REFERENCE BOOKS. A 
SERIES OF POPULAR HANDBOOKS FOR CONCRETE USERS. 
Prepared by A. A. Houghton Each 50 cents 

The : i : • i paring this Series, has not only treated on the usual types 

: znd illustrates molds and systems thai arc not patented, but whic'r 
in value and often superior to i :stricied by patents. These mote cosily and 

che:. - 6 and embody simplicity, rapidity of operation, and the most sue:- 

resi ded concrete. Ear . Twelve boolcs is fully illustrated, and the 

xhausiively treated in plain English. 

CONCRETE WALL FORMS. By A. A. Houghtc: 

A new automatic wall clamp is illustrated with working drawings. Other types of 

wall forms, clamps, separators, etc., are also illustrated and explained. 

(No. 1 of 9bobe ". . 50 cents 

CONCRETE FLOORS AND SIDEWALKS. By A. A. Houghton. 

The molds for molding squares, hexagonal and many other styles of mosaic floor and 
sidewalk blocks are fully.illustrated and explained. CNo. 2 of Series) . . 50 cents 

PRACTICAL CONCRETE SILO CONSTRUCTION. By A. A. Houghton. 

Complete working drawings and specifications are given for several styles of concrete 
silos, with illustrations of molds for monolithic and block silos. The tables, data, and 
information presented in this book are of the utmost value in planning and constructing 
all forms of concrete silos. (Tvo. 3 of Series) 50 cents 

MOLDING CONCRETE CHIMNEYS, SLATE AND ROOF TILES. By A. A. 

HOUGHTON. 

The manufacture of all types of concrete slate and roof tile is fully treated. Tamable 
data on all forms of reinforced concrete roofs are contained within its pages. The 
construction of concrete chimneys by block and monolithic systems is fully illustrated 
and described. A number of ornamental designs of chimney construction with molds 
are shown in this valuable treatise. (Ivo. 4 of Series.) 50 cents 

MOLDING AND CURING ORNAMENTAL CONCRETE. By A. A. Houghton. 

The proper proportions of cement and aggregates for various finishes, also the method 

of thoroughly mixing and placing in the molds, are fully treated. An exhaustive 

treatise on tins subject that every concrete worker will find of daily use and value. 

".' : 5 of Series. ) 50 cents 

CONCRETE MONUMENTS, MAUSOLEUMS AND BURIAL VAULTS. By A. A. 

Houghton. 

The molding of concrete monuments to imitate the most expensive cut stone is ex- 
plained in this treatise, with working drawings of easily built molds. Cutting in- 
vtions and designs are also fully treated. {5vo. 6 of Series.) ... 50 cents 

MOLDING CONCRETE BATHTUBS, AQUARIUMS AND NATATORIUMS. 
By A. A. Hought; 

Simple molds and instruction are given for molding many styles of concrete bathtubs. 
swimming r pools. etc. These molds are easily built and permit rapid and successful 
work. CNo. 7 of Series.^ 50 cents 

8 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

CONCRETE BRIDGES, CULVERTS AND SEWERS. By A. A. Houghton. 

A number of ornamental concrete bridges with illustrations of molds are Riven. A 
collapsible center or core for bridges, culverts and sewers is fully illustrated with de- 
tailed instructions for building. (No. 8 of Sories.) 50 cents 

CONSTRUCTING CONCRETE PORCHES. By A. A. Houghton. 

A number of designs with working drawings of molds are fully explained so any one 
can easily construct different styles of ornamental concreto porches without the pur- 
chase of expensive molds. (No. 9 of Scries.) 50 cents 

MOLDING CONCRETE FLOWER-POTS, BOXES, JARDINIERES, ETC. By 

A. A. Houghton. 

The molds for producing many original designs of flower-pots, urns, flower-boxes, 
jardinieres, etc., are fully illustrated and explained, so the worker can easily construct 
and operate same. (No. 10 of Series.) 50 cents 

MOLDING CONCRETE FOUNTAINS AND LAWN ORNAMENTS. By A. A. 

Houghton. 

The molding of a number of designs of lawn seats, curbing, hitching posts, pergolas, sun 
dials and other forms of ornamental concrete for the ornamentation of lawns and gar- 
dens, is fully illustrated and described. (No. 11 of Series) 50 cents 

CONCRETE FROM SAND MOLDS. By A. A. Houghton. 

A Practical Work treating on a process which has heretofore been held as a trade secret 
by the few who possessed it, and which will successfully mold every and any class of 
ornamental concrete work. The process of molding concrete with sand molds is of 
the utmost practical value, possessing the manifold advantages of a low cost of molds, 
the ease and rapidity of operation, perfect details to all ornamental designs, density 
and increased strength of the concrete, perfect curing of the work without attention 
and the easy removal of the molds regardless of any undercutting the design may have. 
192 pages. Fully illustrated. Price $3.00 

ORNAMENTAL CONCRETE WITHOUT MOLDS. By A. A. Houghton. 

The process for making ornamental concrete without molds has long been held as a 
secret, and now, for the first time, this process is given to the public. The book 
reveals the secret and is the only book published which explains a simple, practical 
method whereby the concrete worker is enabled, by employing wood and metal tem- 
plates of different designs, to mold or model in concrete any Cornice, Archivolt, 
Column, Pedestal, Base Cap, Urn or Pier in a monolithic form — right upon the job. 
These may be molded in units or blocks, and then built up to suit the specifications 
demanded. This work is fully illustrated, with detailed engravings. Price . $2.00 

CONCRETE FOR THE FARM AND IN THE SHOP. By H. Colin 

Campbell, C.E., E.M. 

"Concrete for the Farm and in the Shop" is a new book from cover to cover, illustrat- 
ing and describing in plain, simple language many of the numerous applications of 
concrete within the range of the home worker. Among the subjects treated are: 

Principles of reinforcing; methods of protecting concrete so as to insure proper harden- 
ing; home-made mixers; mixing by hand and machine; form construction, described 
and illustrated by drawings and photographs; construction of concrete walls and 
fences; concrete fence posts; concrete gate posts; corner posts; clothes line posts; 
grape arbor posts; tanks; troughs; cisterns; hog wallows; feeding floors and barn- 
yard pavements ; foundations ; well curbs and platforms ; indoor floors ; sidewalks ; steps ; 
concrete hotbeds and cold frames ; concrete slab roofs ; walls for buildings ; repairing 
leaks in tanks and cisterns; and all topics associated with these subjects as bearing 
upon securing the best results from concrete are dwelt upon at sufficient length in plain 
every-day English so that the inexperienced person desiring to undertake a piece of 
concrete construction can, by following the directions set forth in this book, secure 100 
per cent success every time. A number of convenient and practical tables for estimating 
quantities, and some practical examples, are also given. (5x7). 149 pages, 51 il- 
lustrations. Price $0.75 

POPULAR HANDBOOK FOR CEMENT AND CONCRETE USERS. By Myron 
H. Lewis. 

This is a concise treatise of the principles and methods employed in the manufacture 
and use of cement in all classes of modern works. The author has brought together 
in this work all the salient matter of interest to the user of concrete and its many 
diversified products. The matter is presented in logical and systematic order, clearly 
written, fully illustrated and free from involved mathematics. Everything of value to 
the concrete user is given, including kinds of cement employed in construction, concrete 
architecture, inspection and testing, waterproofing, coloring and painting, rules, tables, 
working and cost data. The book comprises thirty-three chapters, as follows: 

Introductory. Kinds of Cements and How They are Made. Properties. Testing 
and Requirements of Hydraulic Cement. Concrete and its Properties. Sand, Broken 
Stone and Gravel for Concrete. How to Proportion the Materials. How to Mix 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 



and Place Concrete. Forms of Concrete Construction. The Architectural and Artistic 
Possibilities of Concrete. Concrete Residences. Mortars, Plasters and Stucco, and 
How to Use them. The Artistic Treatment of Concrete Surfaces. Concrete Building 
Blocks. The Making of Ornamental Concrete. Concrete Pipes, Fences, Posts, etc. 
Essential Features and Advantages of Reenforced Concrete. How to Design Reen- 
forced Concrete Beams, Slabs and Columns. Explanations of the Methods and 
Principles in Designing Reenforced Concrete Beams and Slabs. Systems of Reen- 
forcement Employed. Reenforced Concrete in Factory and General Building Con- 
struction. Concrete in Foundation Work. Concrete Retaining "Walls, Abutments 
and Bulkheads. Concrete Arches and Arch Bridges. Concrete Beam and Girder 
Bridges. Concrete in Sewerage and Drainage Works. Concrete Tanks, Dams and 
Reservoirs. Concrete Sidewalks, Curbs and Pavements. Concrete in Railroad Con- 
structions. The Utility of Concrete on the Farm. The Waterproofing of Concrete 
Structure. Grout of Liquid Concrete and Its Use. Inspection of Concrete "Work. Cost 
of Concrete Work. Some of the special features of the book are: 1. The Attention 
Paid to the Artistic and Architectural Side of Concrete Work. 2. The Authoritative 
Treatment of the Problem of Waterproofing Concrete. 3. An Excellent Summary of 
the Rules to be Followed in Concrete Construction. 4. The Valuable Cost Data and 
Useful Tables given. A valuable Addition to the Library of Every Cement and 
Concrete User. Price $2.50 

WHAT IS SAID OF THIS BOOK: 

"The field of Concrete Construction is well covered and the matter contained is well 
within the understanding of any person." — Engineering-Contracting. 
"Should be on the bookshelves of every contractor, engineer, and architect in the 
land." — National Builder. 

WATERPROOFING CONCRETE. By Myron H. Lewis. 

Modern Methods of Waterproofing Concrete and Other Structures. A condensed 
statement of the Principles, Rules, lind Precautions to be Observed in Waterproofing 
and Dampproofing Structures and Structural Materials. Paper binding. Illustrated. 
Price 50 cents 

DICTIONARIES 

STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY. By T. O'Conor Sloane. 

An indispensable work to all interested in electrical science. Suitable alike for the 
student and professional. A practical handbook of reference containing definitions of 
about 5000 distinct words, terms and phrases. The definitions are terse and concise 
and include every term used in electrical science. Recently issued. An entirely new 
edition. Should be in the possession of all who desire to keep abreast with the progress 
of this branch of science. Complete, concise and convenient. 682 pages. 393 illustra- 
tions. Price $3.00 

DIES— METAL WORK 

DIES: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND USE FOR THE MODERN WORKING OF 
SHEET METALS. By J. V. Woodworth. 

A most useful book, and one which should be in the hands of all engaged in the press 
working of metals: treating on the Designing, Constructing, and Use of Tools, Fixtures 
and Devices, together with the manner in which they should be used in the Power 
Press, for the cheap and rapid production of the great variety of sheet-metal articles 
now in use. It is designed as a guide to the production of sheet-metal parts at the 
minimum of cost with the maximum of output. The hardening and tempering of 
Press tools and the classes of work which may be produced to the best advantage by 
the use of dies in the power press are fully treated. Its 505 illustrations show dies, 
press fixtures and sheet-metal working devices, the descriptions of which are so clear and 
practical that all metal-working mechanics will be able to understand how to design, 
construct and use them. Many of the dies and press fixtures treated were either 
constructed by the author or under his supervision. Others were built by skilful 
mechanics and are in use in large sheet-metal establishments and machine shops. 
5th Edition. Price $3.00 

PUNCHES, DIES AND TOOLS FOR MANUFACTURING IN PRESSES. By 

J. V. Woodworth. 

This work is a companion volume to the author's elementary work entitled "Dies, Their 
Construction and Use." It does not go into the details of die-making to the extent of 
the author's previous book, but gives a comprehensive review of the field of operations 
carried on by pressas. A large part of the information given has been drawn from the 
author's personal experience. It might well be termed an Encyclopedia of Die-Making, 
Punch-Making. Die-Sinking, Sheet-Metal Working, and Making of Special Tools, Sub- 
presses, Devices and Mechanical Combinations for Punching, Cutting, Bending, Form- 
ing, Piercing, Drawing, Compressing and Assembling Sheet-Metal Parts, and also Arti- 
cles of other Materials in Machine Tools. 2d Edition. Price $4.00 

IO 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 
DROP FORGING, DIE-SINKING AND MACHINE-FORMING OF STEEL. By 

J. V. W'OODWORTH. 

This is a practical treatise on Modern Shop Practice, Processes, Methods, Machine 
TooLs, and Details treating on the Hot and Cold Machine-Forming of Steel and Iron 
into Finished Shapes; together with Tools, Dies, and Machinery involved in the 
manufacture of Duplicate Forgings and Interchangeable Hot and Cold Pressed Parts 
from Bar and Sheet Metal. This book fills a demand of long standing for information 
regarding drop-forgings, die-sinking and machine-forming of steel and the shop 
practice involved, as it actually exists in the modern drop-forging shop. The processes 
of die-sinking and force-making, which are thoroughly described and illustrated in this 
admirable work, are rarely to be found explained in such a clear and concise manner 
as is here set forth. The process of die-sinking relates to the engraving or sinking of 
the female or lower dies, such as are used for drop-forgings, hot; and cold machine 
forging, swedging and the press working of metals. The process of force-making 
relates to the engraving or raising of the male or upper dies used in producing the 
lower dies for the press-forming and machine-forging of duplicate parts of metal. 
In addition to the arts above mentioned the book contains explicit information re- 
garding the drop-forging and hardening plants, designs, conditions, equipment, drop 
hammers, forging machines, etc., machine forging, hydraulic forging, autogenous 
welding and shop practice. The book contains eleven chapters, and the information 
contained in these chapters is just what will prove most valuable to the forged-metal 
worker. All operations described in the work are thoroughly illustrated by means of 
perspective half-tones and outline sketches of the machinery employed. 300 detailed 
illustrations. Price $2.50 

DRAWING— SKETCHING PAPER 



PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. By Richards and Colvin. 

Shows just how to make all kinds of mechanical drawings in the only practical per- 
spective isometric. Makes everything plain so that any mechanic can understand 
a sketch or drawing in this way. Saves time in the drawing room, and mistakes in the 
shops. Contains practical examples of various classes of work. 4th Edition. 50 cents 

LINEAR PERSPECTIVE SELF-TAUGHT. By Herman T. C. Kraus. 

This work gives the theory and practice of linear perspective, as used in architectural, 
engineering and mechanical drawings. Persons taking up the study of the subject 
by themselves will be able, by the use of the instruction given, to readily grasp the 
subject, and by reasonable practice become good perspective draftsmen. The arrange- 
ment of the book is good; the plate is on the left-hand, while the descriptive text 
follows on the opposite page, so as to be readily referred to. The drawings are on 
sufficiently large scale to show the work clearly and are plainly figured. There is 
included a self-explanatory chart which gives all information necessary for the thorough 
understanding of perspective. This chart alone is worth many times over the price of 
the book. 2d Revised and enlarged Edition $2.50 

SELF-TAUGHT MECHANICAL DRAWING AND ELEMENTARY MACHINE 
DESIGN. By F. L. Sylvester, M.E., Draftsman, with additions by Erik 
Oberg, associate editor of " Machinery." 

This is a practical treatise on Mechanical Drawing and Machine Design, comprising 
the first principles of geometric and mechanical drawing, workshop mathematics, 
mechanics, strength of materials and the calculations and design of machine details. 
The author's aim has been to adapt this treatise to the requirements of the practical 
mechanic and young draftsman and to present the matter in as clear and concise a 
manner as possible. To meet the demands of this class of students, practically all the 
important elements of machine design have been dealt with, and in addition algebraic 
formulas have been explained, and the elements of trigonometry treated in the manner 
best suited to the needs of the practical man. The book is divided into 20 chapters, 
and in arranging the material, mechanical drawing, pure and simple, has been taken 
up first, as a thorough understanding of the principles of representing objects facilitates 
the further study of mechanical subjects. This is followed by the mathematics neces- 
sary for the solution of the problems in machine design which are presented later, and 
a practical introduction to theoretical mechanics and the strength of materials. The 
various elements entering into machine design, such as cams, gears, sprocket-wheels, 
cone pulleys, bolts, screws, couplings, clutches, shafting and fly-wheels, have been 
treated in such a way as to make possible the use of the work as a text-book for a 
continuous course of study. It is easily comprehended and assimilated even by 
students of limited previous training. 330 pages, 215 engravings. Price . . $2.00 

A NEW SKETCHING PAPER. 

A new specially ruled paper to enable you to make sketches or drawings in isometric 
perspective without any figuring or fussing. It is being used for shop details as well 
as for assembly drawings, as it makes one sketch do the work of three, and no workman 
can help seeing just what is wanted. Pads of 40 sheets, 6x9 inches, 26 cents. Pads 
of 40 sheets, 9x12 inches, 50 cents; 40 sheets, 12x18, Price $1.00 

II 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

ELECTRICITY 

ARITHMETIC OF ELECTRICITY. By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloane. 

A practical treatise on electrical calculations of all kinds reduced to a series of rules, all 
of the simplest forms, and involving only ordinary arithmetic; each rule illustrated 
by one or more practical problems, with detailed solution of each one. This book is 
classed among the most useful works published on the science of electricity, covering 
as it does the mathematics of electricity in a manner that will attract the attention 
of those who are not familiar with algebraical formulas. 20th Edition. 160 pages. 
Price $1.00 

COMMUTATOR CONSTRUCTION. By Wm. Baxter, Jr. 

The business end of any dynamo or motor of the direct current type is the commutator. 
This book goes into the designing, building, and maintenance of commutators, snows 
how to locate troubles and how to remedy them; everyone who fusses with dynamos 
needs this. 4th Edition 25 cents 

DYNAMO BUILDING FOR AMATEURS, OR HOW TO CONSTRUCT A FIFTY- 
WATT DYNAMO. By Arthur J. Weed, Member of N. Y. Electrical Society. 

A practical treatise showing in detail the construction of a small dynamo or motor, the 
entire machine work of which can be done on a smaU foot lathe. Dimensioned working 
drawings are given for each piece of machine work, and each operation is clearly 
described. This machine, when used as a dynamo, has an output of fifty watts; when 
used as a motor it will drive a smaU drill press or lathe. It can be used to drive a 
sewing machine on any and all ordinary work. The book is illustrated with more 
than sixty original engravings showing the actual construction of the different parts. 
Among the contents are chapters on: 1. Fifty-Watt Dynamo. 2. Side Bearing 
Rods. 3. Field Punching. 4. Bearings. 5. Commutator. 6. Pulley. 7. Brush 
Holders. 8. Connection Board. 9. Armature Shaft. 10. Armature. 11. Armature 
Winding. 12. Field Winding. 13. Connecting and Starting. Price, paper, 50 cents. 
Cloth $1.00 

ELECTRIC WIRING, DIAGRAMS AND SWITCHBOARDS. By Newton 
Harrison. 

A thoroughly practical treatise covering the subject of Electric Wiring in all its branches, 
including explanations and diagrams which are thoroughly explicit and greatly simplify 
the subject. Practical, every-day problems in wiring are presented and the method 
of obtaining intelligent results clearly shown. Only arithmetic is used. Ohm's law 
is given a simple explanation with reference to wiring for direct and alternating 
currents. The fundamental principle of drop of potential in circuits is shown with its 
various applications. The simple circuit is developed with the position of mains, 
feeders and branches; their treatment as a part of a wiring plan and their employ- 
ment in house wiring clearly illustrated. Some simple facts about testing are included 
in connection with the wiring. Molding and conduit work are given careful considera- 
tion; and switchboards are systematically treated, built up and illustrated, showing 
the purpose they serve, for connection with the circuits, and to shunt and compound 
wound machines. The simple principles of switchboard construction, the develop- 
ment of the switchboard, the connections of the various instruments, including the 
lightning arrester, are also plainly set forth. 

Alternating current wiring is treated, with explanations of the power factor, conditions 
calling for various sizes of wire, and a simple way of obtaining the sizes for single-phase, 
two-phase and three-phase circuits. This is the only complete work issued showing 
and telling you what you should know about direct and alternating current wiring. It 
is a ready reference. The work is free from advanced technicalities and mathematics, 
arithmetic being used throughout. It is in every respect a handy, well- written, 
instructive, comprehensive volume on wiring for the wireman, foreman, contractor, 
or electrician. 272 pages; 105 illustrations. Price $1.50 

ELECTRIC TOY MAKING, DYNAMO BUILDING, AND ELECTRIC MOTOR 
CONSTRUCTION. By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloane. 

This work treats of the making at home of electrical toys, electrical apparatus, motors, 
dynamos and instruments in general, and is designed to bring within the reach of 
young and old the manufacture of genuine and useful electrical appliances. The work 
is especially designed for amateurs and young folks. 

Thousands of our young people are daily experimenting, and busily engaged in making 
electrical toys and apparatus of various kinds. The present work is just what is want- 
ed to give the much needed information in a plain, practical manner, with illustrations 
to make easy the carrying out of the work. 20th Edition. Price .... $1.00 

PRACTICAL ELECTRICITY. By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloane. 

This work of 768 pages was previously known as Sloane's Electricians' Hand Book, and 
is intended for the practical electrician who has to make things go. The entire 
field of electricity is covered within its pages. Among some of the subjects treated 

12 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

are: The Theory of the Electric Current and Circuit, Electro-Chemistry, Primary 
Batteries, storage Batteries, Generation and Utilization of Electric Powers, Alter- 
nating Current, Armature Winding. Dynamos and Motors, Motor Generators, 
Operation of the Central Station Switchboards, Safety Appliances, Distribution 
of Electric Light and Power. Street Mains, Transformers, Arc and Incandescent 
Lighting, Electric Measurements, Photometry. Electric Railways, Telephony, Bell- 
Wiring, Electric-Plating, Electric Heating, Wireless Telegraphy, etc. It contains no 
useless theory; everything is to the point. It teaches you just what you want to 
know about electricity. It is the standard work published on the subject. Forty- 
one chapters, 556 engravings. Price $2.60 

ELECTRICITY SIMPLIFIED. By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloane. 

The object of "Electricity Simplified" is to make the subject as plain as possible and 
to show what the modern conception of electricity is; to show how two plates of 
different metal, immersed in acid, can send a message around the globe; to explain 
how a bundle of copper wire rotated by a steam engine can be the agent in lighting 
our streets, to tell what the volt, ohm and ampere are, and what high and low tension 
mean; and to answer the questions that perpetually arise in the mind in this age of 
electricity. 13th Edition. 172 pages. Illustrated. Price $1.00 

HOUSE WIRING. By Thomas W. Poppe. 

This work describes and illustrates the actual installation of Electric Light Wiring, 
the manner in which the work should be done, and the method of doing it. The book 
can be conveniently carried in the pocket. It is intended for the Electrician, Helper 
and Apprentice. It solves all Wiring Problems and contains nothing that conflicts 
with the rulings of the National Board of Fire Underwriters. It gives just the informa- 
tion essential to the Successful Wiring of a Building. Among the subjects treated are: 
Locating the Meter. Panel Boards. Switches. Plug Receptacles. Brackets. Ceiling 
Fixtures. The Meter Connections. The Feed Wires. The Steel Armored Cable 
System. The Flexible Steel Conduit System. The Ridig Conduit System. A digest 
of the National Board of Fire Underwriters' rules relating to metallic wiring systems. 
Various switching arrangements explained and diagrammed. The easiest method of 
testing the Three- and Four-way circuits explained. The grounding of all metallic 
wiring systems and the reason for doing so shown and explained. The insulation of 
the metal parts of lamp fixtures and the reason for the same described and illustrated. 
125 pages. 2nd Edition, revised and enlarged. Fully illustrated. Flexible cloth. 
Price 50 cents 

WHAT IS SAID OF THIS BOOK: 

"The information given is exact and exhaustive without being too technical or over- 
laden "with details." — Druggists' Circular. 

HOW TO BECOME A SUCCESSFUL ELECTRICIAN. By Proi. T. O'Conor 

Sloane. 

Every young man who wishes to become a successful electrician should read this book. 
It tells in simple language the surest and easiest way to become a successful electrician. 
The studies to be followed, methods of w T ork, field of operation and the requirements 
of the successful electrician are pointed out and fully explained. Every young en- 
gineer will find this an excellent stepping stone to more advanced works on electricity 
which he must master before success can be attained. Many young men become dis- 
couraged at the very outstart by attempting to read and study books that are far 
beyond their comprehension. This book serves as the connecting link between the 
rudiments taught in the public schools and the real study of electricity. It is inter- 
esting from cover to cover. Eighteenth Revised Edition, just issued. 205 pages. 
Illustrated. Price $1.00 

STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY. By T. O'Conor Sloane. 

An indispensable work to all interested in electrical science. Suitable alike for the 
student and professional. A practical handbook of reference containing definitions 
of about 5,000 distinct words, terms and phrases. The definitions are terse and 
concise and include every term used in electrical science. Recently issued. An en- 
tirely new edition. Should be in the possession of all who desire to keep abreast with 
the progress of this branch of science. In its arrangement and typography the book 
is very convenient. The word or term defined is printed in black-faced type which 
readily catches the eye, while the body of the page is in smaller but distinct type. The 
definitions are well worded, and so as to be understood by the non- technical reader. 
The general plan seems to be to give an exact, concise definition, and then amplify 
and explain in a more popular way. Synonyms are also given, and references to other 
words and phrases are made. A very complete and accurate index of fifty pages is 
at the end of the volume; and as this index contains all synonyms, and as all phrases 
are indexed in every reasonable combination of words, reference to the proper place 
in the body of the book is readily made. It is difficult to decide how far a book of 
this character is to keep the dictionary form, and to what extent it may assume the 
encyclopedia form. For some purposes, concise, exactly worded definitions are needed ; 
for other purposes, more extended descriptions are required. This book seeks to satisfy 
both demands, and does it with considerable success. Complete, concise and con- 
venient. 682 pages. 393 illustrations. Twelfth Edition. Price . . . . $3.00 

13 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

SWITCHBOARDS. By Wilt jam Baxter, Jr. 

This book appeals to every engineer and electrician who wants to know the practical 
side of things. It takes up all sorts and conditions of dynamos, connections and 
circuits, and shows by diagram and illustration just how the switchboard should be 
connected. Includes direct and alternating current boards, also those for arc lighting, 
incandescent and power circuits. Special treatment on high voltage boards for power 
transmission. 2d Edition. 190 pages. Illustrated. Price $1.50 

TELEPHONE CONSTRUCTION, INSTALLATION, WIRING, OPERATION 
AND MAINTENANCE. By W. H. Radcliffe and H. C. Cushing. 

This book is intended for the amateur, the wireman. or the engineer who desires to 
establish a means of telephonic communication between the rooms of his home, office, 
or shop. It deals only with such things as may be of use to him rather than with 
theories. 

Gives the principles of construction and operation of both the Bell and Independent 
instruments: approved methods of installing and wiring them: the means of protecting 
them from hghtning and abnormal currents: their connection together for operation 
as series or bridging stations : and rules for their inspection and maintenance. Line 
wiring and the wiring and operation of special telephone systems are also treated. 

Intricate mathematics are avoided, and all apparatus, circuits and systems are thor- 
oughly described. The appendix contains definitions of units and terms used in the 
text. Selected wiring tables, which are vein,- helpful, are also included. Among the 
subjects treated are Construction, Operation, and Installation of Telephone Instru- 
ments: Inspection and Maintenance of Telephone Instruments; Telephone Line 
Wiring; Testing Telephone Line Wires and Cables; Wiring and Operation of Special 
Telephone Systems, etc. 2nd Edition, revised and enlarged. 223 pages. 154 
illustrations $1.00 

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY SIMPLY EXPLAINED. By 

Alfred P. Morgan. 

This is undoubtedly one of the most complete and comprehensible treatises on the 
subject ever published, and a close study of its pages will enable one to master all the 
details of the wireless transmission of messages. The author has filled a long-felt 
want and has succeeded in furnishing a lucid, comprehensible explanation in simple 
language of the theory and practice of wireless telegraphy and telephony. 
Among the contents are: Introductory: Wireless Transmission and Eeception — The 
Aerial System, Earth Connections — The Transmitting Apparatus, Spark Coils and 
Transformers. Condensers. Helixes, Spark Gaps, Anchor Gaps, Aerial Switches — The 
Receiving Apparatus, Detectors, etc. — Tuning and Coupling, Tuning Coils, Loose 
Couplers, Variable Condensers. Directive Wave Systems — Miscellaneous Apparatus, 
Telephone Receivers, Range of Stations, Static Interference — Wireless Telephones, 
Sound and Sound Waves. The Vocal Cords and Ear — Wireless Telephone, How Sounds 
Are Changed into Electric Waves — Wireless Telephones, The Apparatus — Summary. 
154 pages. 156 engravings. Price $1.00 

WHAT IS SAID OF THIS BOOK: 

"This book should be in both the home and school library." — The Youths' Instructor. 

WIRING A HOUSE. By Herbert Pratt. 

Shows a house already built; tells just how to start about wiring it; where to begin; 
what wire to use: how to run it according to Insurance Rules; in fact, just the informa- 
tion you need. Directions apply equally to a shop. Fourth edition . . 25 cents 



FACTORY MANAGEMENT, ETC. 

MODERN MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT AND MANAGE- 
MENT. By O. E. Perrigo, M.E. 

The only work published that describes the modern machine shop or manufacturing 
plant from the time the grass is growing on the site intended for it until the finished 
product is shipped. By a careful study of its thirty-two chapters the practical man 
may economically build, efficiently equip, and successfully manage the modern machine 
shop or manufacturing establishment. Just the book needed by those contemplating 
the erection of modern shop buildings, the rebuilding and reorganization of old ones, 
or the introduction of modern shop methods, time and cost systems. It is a book 
written and illustrated by a practical shop man for practical shop men who are too 
busy to read theories and want facts. It is the most complete all-around book of its 
kind ever published. It is a practical book for practical men, from the apprentice in 
the shop to the president in the office. It minutely describes and illustrates the most 
simple and yet the most efficient time and cost system yet devised. Price . $5.00 



14 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

FUEL 

COMBUSTION OF COAL AND THE PREVENTION OF SMOKE. By Wm. M. 
Barr. 

This book has been prepared with special reference to the generation of heat by the 
combustion of the common fuels found in the United States, and deals particularly 
with the conditions necessary to the economic and smokeless combustion of bituminous 
coals in Stationary and Locomotive Steam Boilers. 

The presentation of this important subject is systematic and progressive. The ar- 
rangement of the book is in a series of practical questions to which are appended 
accurate answers, which describe in language, free from technicalities, the several 
processes involved in the furnace combustion of American fuels; it clearly states the 
essential requisites for perfect combustion, and points out the best methods for furnace 
construction for obtaining the greatest quantity of heat from any given quality of 
coal. Nearly 350 pages, fully illustrated. Price $1.00 



GAS ENGINES AND GAS 

THE GASOLINE ENGINE ON THE FARM: ITS OPERATION, REPAIR AND 

USES. By Xeno W. Putnam. 

This is a practical treatise on the Gasoline and Kerosene Engine intended for the man 
who wants to know just how to manage his engine and how to apply it to all kinds of 
farm work to the best advantage. 

This book abounds with hints and helps for the farm and suggestions for the home 
and housewife. There is so much of value in this book that it is impossible to ade- 
quately describe it in such small space. Suffice to say that it is the kind of a book 
every farmer will appreciate and every farm home ought to have. Includes selecting 
the most suitable engine for farm work, its most convenient and efficient installation, 
with chapters on troubles, their remedies, and how to avoid them. The care and 
management of the farm tractor in plowing, harrowing, harvesting and road grading 
are fully covered; also plain directions are given for handling the tractor on the road. 
Special attention is given to relieving farm life of its drudgery by applying power to 
the disagreeable small tasks which must otherwise be done by hand. Many home- 
made contrivances for cutting wood, supplying kitchen, garden, and barn with water, 
loading, hauling and unloading hay, delivering grain to the bins or the feed trough 
are included; also full directions for making the engine milk the cows, churn, wash, 
sweep the house and clean the windows, etc. Very fully illustrated with drawings of 
working parts and cuts showing Stationary, Portable and Tractor Engines doing all 
kinds of farm work. All money-making farms utilize power. Learn how to utilize 
power by reading the pages of this book. It is an aid to the result getter, invaluable 
to the up-to-date farmer, student, blacksmith, implement dealer and, in fact, all who 
can apply practical knowledge of stationary gasoline engines or gas traccors to advan- 
tage. 530 pages. Nearly 180 engravings. Price $2.00 

WHAT IS SAID OF THIS BOOK: 

"Am much pleased with the book and find it to be very complete and up-to-date. 
I will heartily recommend it to students and farmers whom I think would stand in 
need of such a work, as I think it is an exceptionally good one." — N. S. Gardiner, 
Prof, in Charge, Clemson Agr. College of S. C. ; Dept. of Agri. and Agri. Exp. Station, 
Clemson College, S. C. 

V I feel that Mr. Putnam's book covers the main points which a farmer should know." 
— R. T. Burdick, Instructor in Agronomy, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt. 

"It will be a valuable addition to our library upon Farm Machinery." — James A. 
Farra, Inst, in Agri. Engineering, State University of Ky., Lexington, Ky. 

GASOLINE ENGINES: THEIR OPERATION, USE AND CARE. By A. Hyatt 

Verrill. 

The simplest, latest and most comprehensive popular work published on Gasoline 
Engines, describing what the Gasoline Engine is; its construction and operation; how 
to install it; how to select it; how to use it and how to remedy troubles encountered. 
Intended for Owners, Operators and Users of Gasoline Motors of all kinds. This 
work fully describes and illustrates the various types of Gasoline Engines used in 
Motor Boats, Motor Vehicles and Stationary Work. The parts, accessories and 
appliances are described, with chapters on ignition, fuel, lubrication, operation and 
engine troubles. Special attention is given to the care, operation and repair of motors, 
with useful hints and suggestions on emergency repairs and makeshifts. A complete 
glossary of technical terms and an alphabetically arranged table of troubles and their 
symptoms form most valuable and unique features of this manual. Nearly every 
illustration in the book is original, having been made by the author. Every page is 
full of interest and value. A book which you cannot afford to be without. 275 pages. 
152 specially made engravings. Price $1.50 



15 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 



GAS, GASOLINE. AND OIL ENGINES. 






GAS ENGINE CONSTRUCTION. OR HOV,' TO BUTLD A HALF-HORSE- 
POSTER GAS ENGINE. By P^z.5zzz sjii V'ztiz 






■>i Eiirlin :X :^^ rrtif S2.50 

HOW TO RUN AND INSTALL GASOLINE ENGINES. Bv C. V;v Ctzzn-. 



ice . . 35 eeats 



MODERN GAS ENGINES AND PRODUCER GAS PLANTS. By R. E. Mi~::. 
-.;: :.i::. = t ^L5:^L.i7;:y :yTn:;:r. ill r^iiviaiOr :: r^^rz^ines Mire :!:::: ::; 



THE MODERN GAS TRACTOR. Ey V:t_-:?. VT. p^:- Z . 

GEARING AND CAMS 

BEVEL GEAR TABLES. By D. A:-. E:r :-=—.: v. 

A "'::'.-: :"::i: ~~J1 it :n:-T _- - : --;_•-• -,- — ^r'- -„- : --s -.*• i :\f _ 5iir~ IT 1 :-? i~i7 

— -_-'j. -_/.".:- :_.--• :- ^tTT7 s.z.± riwiy r.^irtr^ ::. tj-1 :rir= ;... i -i:ii-s :: ri = ;- : : : iz_j- 

.'.'. : _ - _ . "_t : : rTr'iT :.;7~-r ~y. u^r. A : : ~ 7 -- t^_~ ":-:" ir'f-> 7: u : :r ^117- 

thing in the bevel-gear fine. 3d Edition- 66 pages. SI. 00 

CHANGE GE.AR DEVICES. By Osr.^p. E. Pz?.?.:-.: 

A ::r2..:v:::i'. '-•:•: k :':: -. —- ir-rlr^rr iri::.:=:.i' ini ~. >:hi^:: :':-r^s:^l ir. :r.»r l^tt-- 
- -. izi i--rri.:rzir-: ::' :'z.-. 2:-—:-^::.-:':^:: ";-.:•.--.- r- in-iir A."t:ti:: ~:-,:;..-tS :-j;::- 
ing such mechanism- An the necessary information on this subject is taken np. 
analyzed, classified, sifted, and concentrated for the use of busy men who have not the 
time to so through the tows of irrelevant matter with winch such a subject is usu- 
ally encumbered and select such information as will be useful to them. 

l6 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

It shows just what has been done, how it has been done, when it was done, and who 
did it. It saves time in hunting up patent records and re-inventing old Ideas. 88 
pages $1.00 

DRAFTING OF CAMS. By Louis Rouillion. 

The laying out of cams is a serious problem unless you know how to go at it right. 
This puts you on the right road for practically any kind of cam you are likely to run 
up against. 3d Edition 25 cents 

HYDRAULICS 



HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING. By Gardner D. Hiscox. 

A treatise on the properties, power, and resources of water for all purposes. Including 
the measurement of streams, the flow of water in pipes or conduits; the horse-power 
of falling water, turbine and impact water-wheels, wave motors, centrifugal, recipro- 
cating and air-lift pumps. With 300 figures and diagrams and 36 practical tables. 
All who are interested in water-works development will find this book a useful one, 
because it is an entirely practical treatise upon a subject of present importance, and 
cannot fail in having a far-reaching influence, and for this reason should have a place 
in the working library of every engineer. Among the subjects treated are: Historical 
Hydraulics, Properties of Water, Measurement of the Flow of Streams; Flow 
from Sub-surface Orifices and Nozzles; Flow of Water in Pipes; Siphons of Various 
Kinds; Dams and Great Storage Reservoirs; City and Town Water Supply; Wells 
and Their Reinforcement; Air Lift Methods of Raising Water; Artesian Wells; 
Irrigation of Arid Districts; Water Power; Water Wheels; Pumps and Pumping 
Machinery; Reciprocating Pumps; Hydraulic Power Transmission; Hydraulic 
Mining; Canals; Ditches; Conduits and Pipe Lines; Marine Hydraulics; Tidal and 
Sea Wave Power, etc. 320 pages. Price $4.00 

INVENTIONS— PATENTS 



INVENTORS' MANUAL, HOW TO MAKE A PATENT PAY. 

This is a book designed as a guide to inventors in perfecting their inventions, taking 
out their patents and disposing of them. It is not in* any sense a Patent Solicitor's 
Circular nor a Patent Broker's Advertisement. No advertisements of any description 
appear in the work. It is a book containing a quarter of a century's experience of a 
successful inventor, together with notes based upon the experience of many other 
inventors. 

Among the subjects treated in this work are: How to Invent. How to Secure a 
Good Patent. Value of Good Invention. How to Exhibit an Invention. How to 
Interest Capital. How to Estimate the Value of a Patent. Value of Design Patents. 
Value of Foreign Patents. Value of Small Inventions. Advice on Selling Patents. 
Advice oh the Formation of Stock Companies. Advice on the Formation of Limited 
Liability Companies. Advice on Disposing of Old Patents. Advice as to Patent 
Attorneys. Advice as to Selling Agents. Forms of Assignments. License and Con- 
tracts. State Laws Concerning Patent Rights. 1900 Census of the United States by 
Counts of Over 10,000 Population. Revised edition. 120 pages. Price. . $1.00 

KNOTS 

KNOTS, SPLICES AND ROPE WORK. By A. Hyatt Verrill. 

This is a practical book giving complete and simple directions for making all the most 
useful and ornamental knots in common use, with chapters on Splicing, Pointing, 
Seizing, Serving, etc. This book is fully illustrated with one hundred and fifty 
original engravings, which show how each knot, tie or splice is formed, and its appear- 
ance when finished. The book will be found of the greatest value to Campers, Yachts- 
men, Travelers, Boy Scouts, in fact, to anyone having occasion to use or handle rope 
or knots for any purpose. The book is thoroughly reliable and practical, and is not 
only a guide, but a teacher. It is the standard work on the subject. Among the 
contents are: 1. Cordage, Kinds of Rope. Construction of Rope, Parts of Rope 
Cable and Bolt Rope. Strength of Rope, Weight of Rope. 2. Simple Knots and 
Bends. Terms Used in Handling Rope. Seizing Rope. 3. Ties and Hitches. 4. 
Noose, Loops and Mooring Knots. 5. Shortenings, Grommets and Salvages. 6. 
Lashings, Seizings and Splices. 7. Fancy Knots and Rope Work. 128 pages. 150 
original engravings. Price 60 cents 

LATHE WORK 

LATHE DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND OPERATION, WITH PRACTICAL 

EXAMPLES OF LATHE WORK. By Oscar E. Perrigo. 

A new revised edition, and the only complete American work on the subject, written 
by a man who knows not only how work ought to be done, but who also knows how 
to do it, and how to convey this knowledge to others. It is strictly up-to-date in its 

17 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 



:~'^£- 



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TURNING AND BORING TAPERS. B' 



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2 o cent: 



LIQUID .AIR 

LIQUID AIR AND THE LIQUEFACTION OF GASES. Bv T, 



kprid Air. 

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S-:on:i 
52.00 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGIXEERLNG 



AIR-BRAZE CATECHISM. Bv r.:;z?.r Z. Eu- :~ *-.:.. 



~n: _ ; r Air-Erik^ i:'z:ir" 
-:- E^-iir-rr: :ir "£" : .nil-: 

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is 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

COMBUSTION OF COAL AND THE PREVENTION OF SMOKE. By Wm. 
M. Barr. 

This book has been prepared with special reference to the generation of heat by the 
combustion of the common fuels found in the United States and deals particularly 
with the conditions necessary to the economic and smokeless combustion of bituminous 
coal in Stationary and Locomotive Steam Boilers. 

Presentation of this important subject is systematic and progressive. The ar- 
rangement of the book is in a series of practical questions to which are appended 
accurate answers, which describe in language free from technicalities the several 
processes involved in the furnace combustion of American fuels; it clearly states the 
essential requisites for perfect combustion, and points out the best methods of furnace 
construction for obtaining the greatest quantity of heat from any given quality of 
coal. Nearly 350 pages, fully illustrated. Price $1.00 

DIARY OF A ROUND-HOUSE FOREMAN. By T. S. Reilly. 

This is the greatest book of railroad experiences ever published. Containing a fund of 
information and suggestions along the line of handling men, organizing, etc., that one 
cannot afford to miss. 176 pages. Price $1.00 

LINK MOTIONS, VALVES AND VALVE SETTING. By Fred H. Colvin, Asso- 
ciate Editor of American Machinist. 

A handy book for the engineer or machinist that clears up the mysteries of valve 
setting. Shows the different valve gears in use. how they work, and why. Piston 
and slide valves of different types are illustrated and explained. A book that every 
railroad man in the motive power department ought to have. Contains chapters on 
Locomotive Link Motion, Valve Movements, Setting Slide Valves, Analysis by 
Diagrams, Modern Practice, Slip of Block, Slice Valves, Piston Valves, Setting Piston 
Valves, Joy- Allen Valve Gear, Walschaert Valve Gear, Gooch Valve Gear, Alfree- 
Hubbell Valve Gear, etc., etc. Fully illustrated. Price 50.cents 

LOCOMOTIVE BOILER CONSTRUCTION. By Frank A. Kleinhans. 

The construction of boilers in general is treated, and, following this, the locomotive 
boiler is taken up in the order in which its various parts go through the shop. Shows 
all t3 r pes of boilers used; gives details of construction; practical facts, such as life of 
riveting, punches and dies; work done per day, allowance for bending and flanging 
sheets, and other data. Including the recent Locomotive Boiler Inspection Laws 
and Examination Questions with their answers for Government Inspectors. Contains 
chapters on Laying Out Work; Flanging and Forging; Punching; Shearing; Plate 
Planing; General Tables; Finishing Parts; Bending; Machinery Parts; Riveting; 
Boiler Details; Smoke Box Details; Assembling and Calking; Boiler Shop 
Machinery, etc., etc. 

There isn't a man who has anything to do with boiler work, either new or repair work, 
who doesn't need this book. The manufacturer, superintendent, foreman, and boiler 
worker — all need it. No matter what the type of boiler, you'll find a mint of informa- 
tion that you wouldn't be without. Over 400 pages, five large folding plates. 
Price $3.00 

LOCOMOTIVE BREAKDOWNS AND THEIR REMEDIES. By Geo. L. Fowler. 

Revised by Wm. W. Wood, Air-Brake Instructor. Just issued. Revised 

pocket edition. 

It is out of the question to try and tell you about every subject that is covered in this 
pocket edition of Locomotive Breakdowns. Just imagine all the common troubles 
that an engineer may expect to happen some time, and then add all of the unexpected 
ones, troubles that could occur, but that you have never thought about, and you will 
find that they are all treated with the very best methods of repair. Walschaert 
Locomotive Valve Gear Troubles, Electric Headlight Troubles, as well as Questions 
and Answers on the Air Brake are all included. 312 pages. 8th Revised Edition. 
Fully illustrated $1.00 

LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. By Robert Grimshaw. 

The revised edition of "Locomotive Catechism," by Robert Grimshaw, is a New Book 
from Cover to Cover. It contains twice as many pages and double the number of 
illustrations of previous editions. Includes the greatest amount of practical informa- 
tion ever published on the construction and management of modern locomotives. 
Specially Prepared Chapters on the Walschaert Locomotive Valve Gear, the Air- 
Brake Equipment and the Electric Headlight are given. 

It commends itself at once to every Engineer and Fireman, and to all who are going in 
for examination or promotion . In plain language, with full, complete answers, not only 
all the questions asked by the examining engineer are given, but those which the 
young and less experienced would ask the veteran, and which old hands ask as "stick- 
ers." It is a veritable Encyclopedia of the Locomotive, is entirely free from mathe- 
matics, easily understood and thoroughlv up-to-date. Contains over 4,000 Examina- 
tion Questions with their Answers. 825 pages, 437 illustrations and three folding 
plates. 28th Revised Edition $2.50 

19 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

PRACTICAL INSTRUCTOR AND REFERENCE BOOK FOR LOCOMOTIVE 

FIREMEN AND ENGINEERS. By Chas. F. Lockhart. 

An entirely new book on the Locomotive. It appeals to every railroad man, as it 
tells him how things are done and the right way to do them. Written by a man who 
has had years of practical experience in locomotive shops and on the road firing and 
mnning. The information given in this book cannot be found in any other similar 
treatise. Eight hundred and fifty-one questions with their answers are included, 
which will prove specially helpful to those preparing for examination. Practical 
information on: The Construction and Operation of Locomotives; Breakdowns and 
their Remedies; Air Brakes and Valve Gears. Rules and Signals are handled in a 
thorough manner. As a book of reference it cannot be excelled. The book is divided 
into six parts, as follows: 1. The Fireman's Duties. 2. General Description of the 
Locomotive. 3. Breakdowns and their Remedies. 4. Air Brakes. 5. Extracts 
from Standard Rules. 6. Questions for Examination. The 851 questions have been 
carefully selected and arranged. These cover the examinations required by the 
different railroads. 368 pages. 88 illustrations. Price $1.50 

PREVENTION OF RAILROAD ACCIDENTS, OR SAFETY IN RAILROADING. 

By George Bradshaw. 

This book is a heart-to-heart talk with Railroad Employees, dealing with facts, not 
theories, and showing the men in the ranks, from every-day experience, how accidents 
occur and how they may be avoided. The book is illustrated with seventy original 
photographs and drawings showing the safe and unsafe methods of work. No vision- 
ary schemes, no ideal pictures. Just plain facts and Practical Suggestions are given. 
Every railroad employee who reads the book is a better and safer man to have in 
railroad service. It gives just the information which will be the means of preventing 
many injuries and deaths. Ah railroad employees should procure a copy; read it, 
and do your part in preventing accidents. 1G9 pages. Pocket size. Fully illustrated. 
Price 50 cents 

TRAIN RULE EXAMINATIONS MADE EASY. By G. E. Collingwood. 

This is the only practical work on train rules in print. Every detail is covered, and 
puzzling points are explained in simple, comprehensive language, making it a practical 
treatise for the Train Dispatcher, Engineman, Trainman, and all others who have to 
do with the movements of trains. Contains complete and reliable information of the 
Standard Code of Train Rules for single track. Shows Signals in Colors, as used on 
the different roads. Explains fully the practical application of train orders, giving a 
clear and definite understanding of all orders which may be used. The meaning and 
necessity for certain rules are explained in such a manner that the student may know 
beyond a doubt the rights conferred under any orders he may receive or the action 
required by certain rules. As nearly aU roads require trainmen to pass regular exami- 
nations, a complete set of examination questions, with their answers, are included. 
These will enable the student to pass the required examinations with credit to himself 
and the road for which he works. 256 pages. Fully illustrated with Train Signals 
in Colors. Price $1.25 

THE WALSCHAERT AND OTHER MODERN RADIAL VALVE GEARS FOR 

LOCOMOTIVES. By Wm. W. Wood. 

If you would thoroughly understand the Walschaert Valve Gear you should possess a 
copy of this book, as the author takes the plainest form of a steam engine — a stationary 
engine in the rough, that will only turn its crank in one direction — and from it builds 
up — with the reader's help — a modern locomotive equipped with the Walschaert 
Valve Gear, complete. The points discussed are clearly illustrated; two large folding 
plates that show the positions of the valves of both inside or outside admission type, as 
well as the links and other parts of the gear when the crank is at nine different points 
in its revolution, are especially valuable in making the movement clear. These employ 
sliding cardboard models which are contained in a pocket in the cover. 

The book is divided into five general divisions, as follows: 1. Analysis of the gear. 
2. Designing and erecting the gear. 3. Advantages of the gear. 4. Questions and 
answers relating to the Walschaert Valve Gear. 5. Setting valves with the Wal- 
schaert Valve Gear; the three primary types of locomotive valve motion; modern 
radial valve gears other than the Walschaert; the Hobart All-free Valve and Valve 
Gear, with questions and answers on breakdowns; the Baker-PiUiod Valve Gear; the 
Improved Baker-Pilliod Valve Gear, with questions and answers on breakdowns. 
The questions with full answers given will be especially valuable to firemen and engi- 
neers in preparing for an examination for promotion. 245 pages. Third Revised 
Edition. Price $1.50 

WESTINGHOUSE E-T AIR-BRAKE INSTRUCTION POCKET BOOK. By 

Wm. W. Wood, Air-Brake Instructor. 

Here is a book for the railroad man, and the man who aims to be one. It is without 
doubt the only complete work published on the Westinghouse E-T Locomotive Brake 
Equipment. Written by an Air-Brake Instructor who knows just what is needed. It 
covers the subject thoroughly. Everything about the New Westinghouse Engine and 
Tender Brake Equipment, including the standard No. 5 and the Perfected No. 6 
style of brake, is treated in detail. Written in plain English and profusely illustrated 

20 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 



with Colored Plates, which enable one to traco the flow of pressures throughout tho 
entire equipment. Tho best book ever published on tho Air Brake. Equally good for 
the beginner and the advanced engineer. Will pass any one through any examination. 
It informs and enlightens you on every point. Indispensable to every engineman and 
trainman. 

Contains examination questions and answers on the E-T equipment. Covering what 
the E-T Brake is. How it should be operated. What to do when defective. Not a 
question can be asked of the engineman up for promotion, on either the No. 5 or tho 
No. 6 E-T equipment, that is not asked and answered in the book. If you want to 
thoroughly understand the E-T equipment get a copy of this book. It covers every 
detail. Makes Air-Brake troubles and examinations easy. Prico . . . . $1.50 

MACHINE-SHOP PRACTICE 

AMERICAN TOOL MAKING AND INTERCHANGEABLE MANUFACTURING. 
By J. V. Woodworth. 

A "shoppy" book, containing no theorizing, no problematical or experimental devices, 
there are no badly proportioned and impossible diagrams, no catalogue cuts, but a 
valuable collection of drawings and descriptions of devices, the rich fruits of the author's 
own experience. In its 500-odd pages the one subject only, Tool Making, and what- 
ever relates thereto, is dealt with. The work stands without a rival. It is a complete 
practical treatise on the art of American Tool Making and system of interchangeable 
manufacturing as carried on to-day in the United States. In it are described and 
Illustrated all of the different types and classes of small tools, fixtures, devices, and 
special appliances which are in general use in all machine-manufacturing and metal- 
working establishments where economy, capacity, and interchangeability in the pro- 
duction of machined metal parts are imperative. The science of jig making is exhaus- 
tively discussed, and particular attention is paid to drill jigs, boring, profiling and milling 
fixtures and other devices in which the parts to be machined are located and fastened 
within the contrivances. All of the tools, fixtures, and devices illustrated and de- 
scribed have been or are used for the actual production of work, such as parts of drill 
presses, lathes, patented machinery, typewriters, electrical apparatus, mechanical ap- 
pliances, brass goods, composition parts, mould products, sheet metal articles, drop- 
forgings, jewelry, watches, medals, coins, etc. 531 pages. Price .... $4.00 

MACHINE-SHOP ARITHMETIC. By Colvin-Cheney. 

This is an arithmetic of the things you have to do with daily. It tells you plainly 
about: how to find areas in figures; how to find surface or volume of balls or spheres; 
handy ways for calculating; about compound gearing; cutting screw threads on any 
lathe; drilling for taps; speeds of drills; taps, emery wheels, grindstones, milling 
.cutters, etc.; all about the Metric system with conversion tables; properties of metals; 
strength of bolts and nuts ; decimal equivalent of an inch. All sorts of machine-shop 
figuring and 1,001 other things, any one of which ought to be worth more than 
the price of this book to you, and it saves you the trouble of bothering the boss. 6th 
edition. 131 pages. Price 50 cents 

MODERN MACHINE-SHOP CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT AND MANAGE- 
MENT. By Oscar E. Perrigo. 

The only work published that describes the Modern Shop or Manufacturing Plant 
from the time the grass is growing on the site intended for it until the finished product 
is shipped. Just the book needed by those contemplating the erection of modern shop 
buildings, the rebuilding and reorganization of old ones, or the introduction of Modern 
Shop Methods, time and cost systems. It is a book written and illustrated by a prac- 
tical shop man for practical shop men who are too busy to read theories and want facts. 
It is the most complete all-round book of its kind ever published. 400 large quarto 
pages. 225 original and specially-made illustrations. 2d Revised and Enlarged 
Edition. Price $5.00 

" SHOP KINKS." By Robert Grimshaw. 

A book of 400 pages and 222 illustrations, being entirely different from any other 
book on machine-shop practice. Departing from conventional style, the author 
avoids universal or common shop usage and limits his work to showing special ways 
of doing things better, more cheaply and more rapidly than usual. As a result the 
advanced methods of representative establishments of the world are placed at the 
disposal of the reader. This book shows the proprietor where large savings are possible, 
and how products may be improved. To the employee it holds out suggestions that, 
properly applied, will hasten his advancement. No shop can afford to be without it. 
It bristles with valuable wrinkles and helpful suggestions. It will benefit all, from 
apprentice to proprietor. Every machinist, at any age, should study its pages. Fifth 
edition. Price $8.50 

THREADS AND THREAD CUTTING. By Colvin and Stabel. 

This clears up many of the mysteries of thread-cutting, such as double and triple 
threads, internal threads, catching threads, use of hobs, etc. Contains a lot of useful 
hints and several tables. Third edition. Price 25 cents 

21 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

THE WHOLE FIELD OF MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS 
COVERED BY MR. HISCOXS TWO BOOKS 



publish two books by Gardner D. Hiscox that will keep you from "inventing" things 
that have been done before, and suggest wags of doing things that you have not thought of 
before. Many a man spends time and money, pondering over some mechanical problem. 
only to learn, after he has soloed the problem, that the same thing has been accomplished 
and put in practice by others long before. Time and money spent in an effort to accom- 
plish what has already been accomplished are time and money LOST. The whole field 
of mechanics, every known mechanical movement, and practically every device is covered 
by these two books. If the thing you want has been invented, it is illustrated in them. If 
it hasn't been invented, then you'll find in them the nearest things to what you want, some 
movements or devices that will apply in your case, perhaps; or which will give you a key 
from which to work. No book or set of books ever published is of more real value to the 
Inventor, Draftsman, or practical Mechanic than the two volumes described below. 

MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS, POWERS, AND DEVICES. By Gasdnzs D. 
Hiscox. 

This is a collection of 1,890 engravings of different mechanical motions and appliances, 
accompanied by appropriate text, making it a book of great value to the inventor, 
the draftsman, and to all readers with mechanical tastes". The book is divided into 
eighteen sections or chapters, in which the subject-matter is classified under the fallow- 
ing heads: Mechanical Powers; Transmission of Power; Measurement of Power; 
Steam Power; Air Power Appliances; Electric Power and Construction; Navigation 
and Roads; Gearing; Motion and Devices; Controlling Motion; Horotogical; 
Mining ; Mill and Factory Appliances; Construction and Devices; Drafting Devices;; 
Miscellaneous Devices, etc. 12th edition. 400 octavo pages. Price . . . $2.50 

MECHANICAL APPLIANCES, MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS AND NOVELTIES 
OF CONSTRUCTION. By Gahdner D. Hibcxjx. 

This is a supplementary volume to the one upon mechanical movements. Unlike the 
first volume, which is more elementary in character, this volume contains illustrations 
and descriptions of many combinations of motions and of mechanical devices and 
appliances found in different lines of machinery, each device being shown by a line 
drawing with a description showing its working parts and the method of operation. 
Prom the multitude of devices described and illustrated might be mentioned, in 
passing, such items as conveyors and elevators, Prony brakes, thermometers, various 
types of boilers, solar engines, oil-fuel burners, condensers, evaporators, Corliss and 
other valve gears, governors, gas engines, water motors of various descriptions, air 
ships, motors and dynamos, automobile and motor bicycles, railway lock signals, 
car couplers, link and gear motions, ball bearings, breech block mechanism for heavy 
guns, and a large accumulation of others of equal importance. 1,000 specially made 
engravings. 396 octavo pages. 2d Edition. Price S2.50 

MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND SHOP PRACTICE. By W. H. Yandervoobt. 

A work of 555 pages and 673 illustrations, describing in every detail the construction, 
operation, and manipulation of both hand and machine tools. Includes chapters 
on filing, fitting, and scraping surfaces; on drills, reamers, taps, and dies; the lathe 
and its tools; planers, shapers, and their tools; muling machines and cotters; gear 
cutters and gear cutting; drilling machines and drill workr grinding machines and 
their work; hardening and tempering; gearing, belting, and transmission machinery; 
useful data and tables. 6th edition. Price $3.00 

THE MODERN MACHINIST. By John T. Usher. 

This is a book showing bv plain description and bv profuse engravings made expressly 
for the work, all that is best, most advanced, and of the highest efficiency in modern 
machine-shop practice, tools, and implements, showing the way by which and through 
which, as Mr. Maxim says. '"American machinists have become and are the finest me- 
chanics in the world." Indicating as it does, in every line, the f amiliar it y of t he au t ho r 
with every detail of daily experience in the shop, it cannot fail to be of service to any 
man practically connected with the shaping or finishing of metals. 
There is nothing experimental or visionary about the book, all devices being in actual 
use and giving good results. It might be called a compendium of shop methods. 
showing a variety of special tools and appliances which will give new ideas to many 
mechanics, from the superintendent down to the man at the bench. It will be found 
a valuable edition to any machinists library, and should be consulted whenever a 
new or difficult job is to be done, whether it is boring, milling, turning, or plar-ing. 
tbey are all treated in a practical manner. Fifth edition. 320 pages. 250iIluiT.a- 
tions. * Price $2.50 

^2 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

MANUAL TRAINING 

ECONOMICS OF MANUAL TRAINING. By Louis Rouillion. 

The only book published that gives just the information needed by all interested in 
Manual Training, regarding Buildings, Equipment, and Supplies. Shows exactly 
what is needed for all grades of the work from the Kindergarten to the High and 
Normal School. Gives itemized lists of everything used in Manual Training Work 
and tells just what it ought to cost. Also shows where to buy supplies, etc. Contains 
174 pages, and is fully illustrated. 2d edition. Price $1.50 

MARINE ENGINEERING 

MODERN SUBMARINE CHART. 

A cross-section view, showing clearly and distinctly all the interior of a Submarine 
of the latest type. You get more information from this chart about the construction 
and operation of a submarine than in any other way. No details omitted — every- 
thing is accurate and to scale. It is absolutely correct in every detail, having been 
approved by naval engineers. All the machinery and devices fitted in a modern 
Submarine Boat are shown, and to make the engraving more readily understood 
all the features are shown in operative form, with Officers and Men in the act of per- 
forming the duties assigned to/them in serviceconditions. THIS CHART IS REALLY 
AN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF A SUBMARINE. It is educational and worth many 
times its cost. Mailed in a tube for 25 cents 

PATTERN MAKING 

PRACTICAL PATTERN MAKING. By F. W. Barrows. 

This book, now in its second edition, is a comprehensive and entirely practical treatise 
on the subject of pattern making, illustrating pattern work in both wood and metal, 
and with definite instructions on the use of plaster of paris in the trade. It gives 
specific and detailed descriptions of the materials used by pattern makers and de- 
scribes the tools, both those for the bench and the more interesting machine tools; 
having complete chapters on the Lathe, the Circular Saw, and the Band Saw. It gives 
many examples of pattern work, each one fully illustrated and explained with much 
detail. These examples, in their great variety, offer much that will be found of 
interest to all pattern makers, and especially to the younger ones, who are seeking 
information on the more advanced branches of their trade. 

In this second edition of the work will be found much that is new, even to those who 
have long practised this exacting trade. In the description of patterns as adapted 
to the Moulding Machine many difficulties which have long prevented the rapid and 
economical production of castings are overcome; and this great, new branch of the 
trade is given much space. Stripping plate and stool plate work and the less expen- 
sive vibrator, or rapping plate work, are all explained in detail. 

Plain, everyday rules for lessening the cost of patterns, with a complete system of 
cost keeping, a detailed method of marking, applicable to all branches of the trade, 
with complete information showing what the pattern is, its specific title, its cost, 
date of production, material of which it is made, the number of pieces and core- 
boxes, and its location in the pattern safe, all condensed into a most complete card 
record, with cross index. 

The book closes with an original and practical method for the inventory and valua- 
tion of patterns. Containing nearly 350 pages and 170 illustrations. Price . $2.00 

PERFUMERY 

PERFUMES AND COSMETICS, THEIR PREPARATION AND MANUFACTURE. 

By G. W. Askinson, Perfumer. 

A comprehensive treatise, in which there has been nothing omitted that could be of 
value to the perfumer or manufacturer of toilet preparations. Complete directions 
for making handkerchief perfumes, smelling-salts, sachets, fumigating pastilles; 
preparations for the care of the skin, the mouth, the hair, cosmetics, hair dyes and 
other toilet articles are given, also a detailed description of aromatic substances ; their 
nature, tests of purity, and wholesale manufacture, including a chapter on synthetic 
products, with formulas for their use. A book of general, as well as professional in- 
terest, meeting the wants not only of the druggist and perfume manufacturer, but 
also of the general public. Among the contents are: 1. The History of Perfumery. 
2. About Aromatic Substances in General. 3. Odors from the Vegetable Kingdom. 
4. The Aromatic Vegetable Substances Employed in Perfumery. 5. The Animal Sub- 
stances Used in Perfumery. 6. The Chemical Products Used in Perfumery. 7. The Ex- 
traction of Odors. 8. The Special Characteristics of Aromatic Substances. 9. The Adul- 
teration of Essential Oils and Their Recognition. 10. Synthetic Products. 11. Table of 
Physical Properties of Aromatic Chemicals. 12. The Essences or Extracts Employed 
in Perfumery. 13. Directions for Making the Most Important Essences and Extracts. 

23 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 



14. The Division of Perfumery. 15. The Manufacture of Handkerchief Perfumes. 
16. Formulas for Handkerchief Perfumes. 1/. Ammoniacal and Acid Perfumes. 
18. Dry Perfumes. 19. Formulas for Dry Perfumes. 20. The Perfumes Used for 
Fumigation. 21. Antiseptic and Therapeutic Value of Perfumes. 22. Classification of 
Odors. 23. Some Special Perfumery Products. 24. Hygiene and Cosmetic Perfumery. 
25. Preparations for the Care of the Skin. 26. Manufacture of Casein. 27. Formulas 
for Emulsions. 28. Formulas for Cream. 29. Formulas for Meals, Pastes and Vege- 
table Milk. 30. Preparations Used for the Hair. 31. Formulas for Hair Tonics and 
Restorers. 32. Pomades and Hair Oils. 33. Formulas for the Manufacture of 
Pomades and Hair Oils. 34. Hair Dyes and Depilatories. 35. Wax Pomades, Bando- 
lines and Brilliantines. 36. Skin Cosmetics and Face Lotions. 37. Preparations for 
the Nails. 38. Water Softeners and Bath Salts. 39. Preparations for the Care of the 
Mouth. 40. The Colors Used in Perfumery- 41. The Utensils Used in the Toilet. 
Fourth edition much enlarged and brought up-to-date. Nearly 400 pages, illus- 
trated. Price $5.00 

WHAT IS SAID OF THIS BOOK: 

" The most satisfactory work on the subject of Perfumery that we have ever seen. 
" We feel safe in saying that here is a book on Perfumery that "will not disappoint you, 
for it has practical and excellent formula? that are within your ability to prepare 
readily. 

• • We recommend the volume as worthy^of confidence, and say that no purchaser will be 
disappointed in securing from its pages good value for its cost, and a large dividend 
on the same, even if he should use but one per cent of its working formulae. There 
is money in it for every user of its information." — Pharmaceutical Record. 



PLUMBING 

MECHANICAL DRAWING FOR PLUMBERS. By R. M. Starbuck. 

A concise, comprehensive and practical treatise on the subject of mechanical drawing 
in its various modern applications to the work of all who are in any way connected 
with the plumbing trade. Nothing will so help the plumber in estimating and in 
explaining work to customers and workmen as a knowledge of drawing, and to the 
workman it is of inestimable value if he is to rise above his position to positions of 
greater responsibility. Among the chapters contained are: 1. Value to plumber of 
• knowledge of drawing ; tools required and their use ; common views needed in mechan- 
ical drawing. 2. Perspective versus mechanical drawing in showing plumbing con- 
struction. 3. Correct and incorrect methods in plumbing drawing; plan and elevation 
explained. 4. Floor and cellar plans and elevation; scale drawings; use of triangles. 
5. Use of triangles; drawing of fittings, traps, etc. 6. Drawing plumbing elevations 
and fittings. 7. Instructions in drawing plumbing elevations. 8. The drawing of 
plumbing fixtures; scale drawings. 9. Drawings of fixtures and fittings. 10. Inking 
of drawings. 11. Shading of drawings. 12. Shading of drawings. 13. Sectional 
dra wings; drawing of threads. 14. Plumbing elevations from architect's plan. 15. Ele- 
vations of separate parts of the plumbing system. 16. Elevations from the architect's 
plans. 17. Drawings of detail plumbing connections. 18. Architect's plans and plumb- 
ing elevations of residence. 19. Plumbing elevations of residence (continued) ; plumb- 
ing plans for cottage. 20. Plumbing elevations: roof connections. 21. Plans and 
plumbing elevations for six-flat building. 22. Drawing of various parts of the plumb- 
ing system; use of scales. 23. Use of architect's scales. 24. Special features in the 
illustrations of country plumbing. 25. Drawing of wrought-iron piping, valves, radia- 
tors, coils, etc. 26. Drawing of piping to illustrate heating systems. 150 illustrations. 
Price $1.50 

MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED. By R. M. Starbuck. 

This book represents the highest standard of plumbing work. It has been adopted 
and used as a reference book by the United States Government, in its sanitary work in 
Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines, and by the principal Boards of Health of the 
United States and Canada. 

It gives connections, sizes and working data for all fixtures and groups of fixtures. It 
is helpful to the master plumber in demonstrating to his customers and in figuring 
work. It gives the mechanic and student quick and easy access to the best modern 
plumbing practice. Suggestions for estimating plumbing construction are contained 
in its pages. This book represents, in a word, the latest and best up-to-date practice 
and should be in the hands of every architect, sanitary engineer and plumber who 
wishes to keep Himself up to the minute on this important feature of construction. 
Contains following chapters, each illustrated with a full-page plate: Kitchen sink, 
laundry tubs, vegetable wash sink; lavatories, pantry sinks, contents of marble slabs; 
bath tub, foot and sitz bath, shower bath: water closets, venting of water closets; low- 
down water closets, water closets operated by flush valves, water closet range ; slop sink, 
urinals, the bidet: hotel and restaurant sink, grease trap ; refrigerators, safe wastes, laun- 
dry waste, lines of refrigerators, bar sinks, soda fountain sinks; horse stall, frost-proof 
water closets; connections for S traps, venting; connections for drum traps; soil pipe 
connections; supporting of soil pipe; main trap and fresh air inlet; floor drains and 
cellar drains, subsoil drainage; water closets and floor connections; local venting; 
connections for bath rooms; connections for bath rooms, continued; connections for 



24 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

bath rooms, continued; connections for bath rooms, continued; examples of poor 
practice; roughing work ready for test; testing of plumbing system; method of con- 
tinuous venting; continuous venting for two-lioor work; continuous venting for two 
lines of fixtures on three or more Moors; continuous venting of water closets; plumb- 
ing for cottage house; construction for cellar piping; plumbing for residence, use of 
special fittings; plumbing for two-flat house; plumbing for apartment building, plumb- 
ing for double apartment building; plumbing for office building; plumbing for public 
toilet rooms; plumbing for public toilet rooms, continued; plumbing for bath estab- 
lishment; plumbing for engine house, factory plumbing; automatic flushing for 
schools, factories, etc.; use of flushing valves; urinals for public toilet rooms; tho 
Durham system, the destruction of pipes by electrolysis; construction of work without 
use of lead ; automatic sewage lift ; automatic sump tank ; country plumbing ; construc- 
tion of cesspools; septic tank and automatic sewage siphon; country plumbing; water 
supply for country house; thawing of water mains and service by electricity; double 
boilers; hot water supply of large buildings; automatic control of hot water tank; sug- 
gestion for estimating plumbing construction. 407 octavo pages, fully illustrated by 58 
full-page engravings. Third, revised and enlarged edition just issued. Price . $4.00 

STANDARD PRACTICAL PLUMBING. By R. M. Starbuck. 

A complete practical treatise of 450 pages covering the subject of Modern Plumbing 
in all its branches, a large amount of space being devoted to a very complete and 
practical treatment of the subject of Hot Water Supply and Circulation and Range 
Boiler Work. Its thirty chapters include about every phase of the subject one can 
think of, making it an indispensable work to the master plumber, the journeyman 
plumber, and the apprentice plumber, containing chapters on: the plumber's tools; 
wiping solder; composition and use; joint wiping; lead work; traps; siphonage of 
traps; venting; continuous venting; house sewer and sewer connections; house drain; 
soil piping, roughing; main trap and fresh air inlet; floor, yard, cellar drains, rain 
leaders, etc.; fixture wastes; water closets; ventilation; improved plumbing connec- 
tions; residence plumbing; plumbing for hotels, schools, factories, stables, etc.; 
modern country plumbing; filtration of sewage and water supply; hot and cold 
supply; range boilers; circulation; circulating pipes; range boiler problems; hot 
water for large buildings; water lift and its use; multiple connections for hot water 
boilers; heating of radiation by supply system; theory for the plumber; drawing for 
the plumber. Fully illustrated by 347 engravings. Price $3.00 

RECIPE BOOK 



HENLEY'S TWENTIETH CENTURY BOOK OF RECIPES, FORMULAS AND 
PROCESSES. Edited by Gardner D. Hiscox. 

The most valuable Techno-chemical Formula Book published, including over 10,000 
selected scientific, chemical, technological, and practical recipes and processes. 

This is the most complete Book of Formulas ever published, giving thousands of 
recipes for the manufacture of valuable articles for everyday use. Hints, Helps, 
Practical Ideas, and Secret Processes are revealed within its pages. It covers every 
branch of the useful arts and tells thousands of ways of making money, and is just the 
book everyone should have at his command. 

Modern in its treatment of every subject that properly falls within its scope, the book 
may truthfully be said to present the very latest formulas to be found in the arts and 
industries, and to retain those processes which long experience has proven worthy of a 
permanent record. To present here even a limited number of the subjects which find 
a place in this valuable work would be difficult. Suffice to say that in its pages will 
be found matter of intense interest and immeasurably practical value to the scientific 
amateur and to him who wishes to obtain a knowledge of the many processes used in 
the arts, trades and manufacture, a knowledge which will render his pursuits more 
instructive and remunerative. Serving as a reference book to the small and large 
manufacturer and supplying intelligent seekers with the information necessary to 
conduct a process, the work will be found of inestimable worth to the Metallurgist, the 
Photographer, the Perfumer, the Painter, the Manufacturer of Glues, Pastes, Cements, 
and Mucilages, the Compounder of Alloys, the Cook, the Physician, the Druggist, the 
Electrician, the Brewer, the Engineer, the Foundryman, the Machinist, the Potter, the 
Tanner, the Confectioner, the Chiropodist, the Manicure, the Manufacturer of Chem- 
ical Novelties and Toilet Preparations, the Dyer, the Electroplater, the Enameler, the 
Engraver, the Provisioner, the Glass Worker, the Goldbeater, the Watchmaker, the 
Jeweler, the Hat Maker, the Ink Manufacturer, the Optician, the Farmer, the Dairy- 
man, the Paper Maker, the Wood and Metal Worker, the Chandler and Soap Maker, 
the Veterinary Surgeon, and the Technologist in general. 

A mine of information, and up-to-date in every respect. A book which will prove of 
value to EVERYONE, as it covers every branch of the Useful Arts. Every home 
needs this book; every office, every factory, every store, every public and private en- 
terprise — EVERYWHERE — should have a copy. 800 pages. Price. . . $3.00 

WHAT IS SAID OF THIS BOOK: 

"Your Twentieth Century Book of Recipes, Formulas, and Processes duly received. 
I am glad to have a copy of it, and if I could not replace it, money couldn't buy it. It 
is the best thing of the sort I ever saw." (Signed) M. E. Trux, Sparta, Wis. 

25 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 



" There are few persons who would not be able to find in the book some single formula 
that would repaj* several times the cost of the book." — Merchants' Record and Show 
Window. 

"I purchased your book 'Henley's Twentieth Century Book of Recipes, Formulas and 
Processes' about a year ago and it is worth its weight in gold." — Wm. H. Murray, 
Bennington, Vt. 

"THE BOOK WORTH THREE HUNDRED DOLLARS" 

"On close examination of your 'Twentieth Century Receipt Book,' I find it to be a 
very valuable and useful book with the very best of practical information o btainable. 
The price of the book, S3. 00, is very small in comparison to the benefits which one can 
obtain from it. I consider the book worth fully three hundred doUars to anyone." 
— Dr. A. C. Spetts, New York. 

"ONE OP THE WORLD'S MOST USEFUL BOOKS" 

" Some time ago, I got one of your ' Twentieth Century Books of Formulas' and have 
made my living from it ever since. I am alone since my husband's death with two 
smaU children to care for and am trying so hard to support them. I have customers 
who take from me Toilet Articles I put up, following directions given in the book, 
and I have found everyone of them to be fine." — Mrs. J. H. McMaken, West Toledo, 
Ohio. 

RUBBER 



RUBBER HAND STAMPS AND THE MANIPULATION OF INDIA RUBBER. 

By T. O' Conor Sloane. 

This book gives full details on all points, treating in a concise and simple manner the 
elements of nearly everything it is necessary to understand for a commencement in 
any branch of the India Rubber Manufacture. The making of all kinds of Rubber 
Hand Stamps, SmaU Articles of India Rubber, U. S. Government Composition, Dating 
Hand Stamps, the Manipulation of Sheet Rubber, Toy Balloons, India Rubber Solu- 
tions, Cements, Blackings, Renovating Varnish, and Treatment for India Rubber 
Shoes, etc. ; the Hektograph Stamp Inks, and Miscellaneous Notes, with a Short 
Account of the Discovery. Collection and Manufacture of India Rubber, are set forth 
in a manner designed to be readily understood, the explanations being plain and simple. 
Including a chapter on Rubber Tire Making and Vulcanizing; also a chapter on the 
uses of rubber in Surgery and Dentistry. Third revised and enlarged edition. 175 
pages. Illustrated $1.00 

SAWS 



SAW FILINGS AND MANAGEMENT OF SAWS. By Robert Grimshaw. 

A practical hand-book on filing, gumming, swaging, hammering, and the brazing of 
band saws, the speed, work, and power to run circular saws, etc. A handy book for 
those who have charge of saws, or for those mechanics who do their own filing, as it deals 
with the proper shape and pitches of saw teeth of all kinds and gives many useful hints 
and rules for gumming, setting, and filing, and is a practical aid to those who use saws 
for any purpose. Complete tables of proper shape, pitch, and saw teeth as well as 
sizes and number of teeth of various saws are included. Third edition, revised and 
enlarged. Illustrated. Price $1.00 

STEAM ENGINEERING 



AMERICAN STATIONARY ENGINEERING. By W. E. Crane. 

This book begins at the boiler room and takes in the whole power plant. A plain 
talk on every-day work about engines, boilers, and their accessories. It is not intended 
to be scientific or mathematical. All formulas are in simple form so that any one 
understanding plain arithmetic can readily understand any of them. The author 
has made this the most practical book in print : has given the results of his years of 
experience, and has included about all that has to do with an engine room or a power 
plant. You are not left to guess at a single point. You are shown clearly what to 
expect under the various conditions; how to secure the best results; ways of prevent- 
ing "shut downs" and repairs: in short, all that goes to make up the requirements 
of a good engineer, capable of taking charge of a plant. It's plain enough for practical 
men and yet of value to those high in the profession. 

A partial fist of contents is: The boiler room, cleaning boilers, firing, feeding: pumps, 
inspection and repair; chimneys, sizes and cost; piping; mason work; foundations; 
testing cement; pile driving; engines, slow and high speed: valves; valve setting; 
Corliss engines, setting valves, single and double eccentric; air pumps and condensers; 
different types of condensers; water needed; lining up; pounds; pins not square in 
crosshead or crank; engineers' tools; pistons and piston rings; bearing metal; hard- 
ened copper; drip pipes from cylinder jackets; belts, how made, care of; oils; greases; 

26 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

testing lubricants; rules and tables, Including steam tables; areas of segments; 
squares and square roots; cubes and cube root; areas and circumferences of circles. 
Notes on: Brick work; explosions; pumps; pump valves; beaters, economizers; 
safety valves; lap, lead, and clearance. Has a complete examination for a license, 
etc., etc. Second edition. 2S5 pages. Illustrated. Price $2.00 

EMINENT ENGINEERS. By Dwight Goddard. 

Everyone who appreciates the effect of such great inventions as the Steam Engine, 
Steamboat, Locomotive, Sewing Machine, Steel Working, and other fundamental 
discoveries, is interested in knowing a little about the men who made them and their 
achievements. 

Mr. Goddard has selected thirty-two of the world's engineers who have contributed 
most largely to the advancement of our civilization by mechanical means, giving only 
such facts as are of general interest and in a way which appeals to all, whether 
mechanics or not. 280 pages. 35 illustrations. Price $1.50 

ENGINE RUNNER'S CATECHISM. By Robert Grimshaw. 

A practical treatise for the stationary engineer, telling how to erect, adjust, and run 
the principal steam engines in use in the United States. Describing the principal 
features of various special and well-known makes of engines: Temper Cut-off, Shipping 
and Receiving Foundations, Erecting and Starting, Valve Setting, Care and Use, 
Emergencies, Erecting and Adjusting Special Engines. 

The questions asked throughout the catechism are plain and to the point, and the 
answers are given in such simple language as to be readily understood by anyone. All 
the instructions given are complete and up-to-date; and they are written in a popular 
style, without any technicalities or mathematical forniulne. The work is of a handy 
size for the pocket, clearly and well printed, nicely bound, and profusely illustrated. 
To young engineers this catechism will be of great value, especially to those who may 
be preparing to go forward to be examined for certificates of competency; and to 
engineers generally it will be of no little service, as they will find in this volume more 
really practical and useful information than is to be found anywhere else within a like 
compass. 387 pages. Seventh edition. Price $2.00 

HORSE-POWER CHART. 

Shows the horse-power of any stationary engine without calculation. No matter what 
the cylinder diameter of stroke, the steam pressure of cut-off, the revolutions, or 
whether condensing or non-condensing, it's all there. Easy to use, accurate, and 
saves time and calculations. Especially useful to engineers and designers. 50 cents 

MODERN STEAM ENGINEERING IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. By Gardner 
D. Hiscox. 

This is a complete and practical work issued for Stationary Engineers and Firemen, 
dealing with the care and management of boilers, engines, pumps, superheated steam, 
refrigerating machinery, dynamos, motors, elevators, air compressors, and all other 
branches with which the modern engineer must be familiar. Nearly 200 questions with 
their answers on steam and electrical engineering, likely to be asked by the Examin- 
ing Board, are included. 

Among the chapters are: Historical: steam and its properties; appliances for the 
generation of steam; types of boilers; chimney and its work; heat economy of the 
feed water; steam pumps and their work; incrustation and its work; steam above 
atmospheric pressure ; flow of steam from nozzles ; superheated steam and its work ; 
adiabatic expansion of steam; indicator and its work; steam engine proportions; slide 
valve engines and valve motion; Corliss engine and its valve gear; compound engine 
and its theory; triple and multiple expansion engine; steam turbine; refrigeration; 
elevators and their management; cost of power; steam engine troubles; electric 
power and electric plants. 487 pages. 405 engravings. 3d Edition. . . . $3.00 

STEAM ENGINE CATECHISM. By Robert Grimshaw. 

This unique volume of 413 pages is not only a catechism on the question and answer 
principle, but it contains formulas and worked-out answers for all the Steam problems 
that appertain to the operation and management of the Steam Engine. Illustrations 
of various valves and valve gear with their principles of operation are given. Thirty- 
four Tables that are indispensable to every engineer and fireman that wishes to be 
progressive and is ambitious to become master of his calling are within its pages. It is 
a most valuable instructor in the service of Steam Engineering. Leading engineers 
have recommended it as a valuable educator for the beginner as well as a reference book 
for the engineer. It is thoroughly indexed for every detail. Every essential question 
on the Steam Engine with its answer is contained in this valuable work. Sixteenth 
edition. Price $2.00 

STEAM ENGINEER'S ARITHMETIC. By Colvin-Cheney. 

A practical pocket-book for the steam engineer. Shows how to work the problems of 
the engine room and shows "why." Tells how to figure horsepower of engines and 
boilers; area of boilers; has tables of areas and circumferences; steam tables; has a 
dictionary of engineering terms. Puts you on to all of the little kinks in figuring what- 
ever there is to figure around a power plant. Tells you about the heat unit ; absolute 
zero: adiabatic expansion; duty of engines; factor of safety; and a thousand and one 
other things ; and everything is plain and simple — not the hardest way to figure, but 
the easiest. Second Edition 50 cents 

27 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

STEAM HEATING AND VENTILATION 

PRACTICAL STEAM, HOT-WATER HEATING AND VENTILATION. By 
A. G. King. 

This book is the standard and latest work published on the subject and has been pre- 
pared for the use of all engaged in the business of steam, hot-water heating, and ventila- 
tion. It is an original and exhaustive work. Tells how to get heating contracts, how 
to install heating and ventilating apparatus, the best business methods to be used, 
with '"Tricks of the Trade" for shop use. Rules and data for estimating radiation 
and cost and such tables and information as make it an indispensable work for every- 
one interested in steam, hot- water heating, and ventilation. It describes all the principal 
systems of steam, hot-water, vacuum, vapor, and vacuum-vapor heating, together 
with the new accelerated systems of hot-water circulation, including chapters on 
up-to-date methods of ventilation and the fan or blower system of heating and ventila- 
tion. Containing chapters on: I. Introduction. II. Heat. III. Evolution of 
artificial heating apparatus. IV. Boiler surface and settings. V. The chimney flue. 
VI. Pipe and fittings. "V II. Valves, various kinds. VIII. Forms of radiating 
surfaces. IX. Locating of radiating surfaces. X. Estimating radiation. XI. Steam- 
heating apparatus. XII. Exhaust-steam heating. XIII. Hot- water heating. XIV. 
Pressure systems of hot-water work. XV. Hot-water appliances. XVI. Greenhouse 
heating. XVII. \ acuum vapor and vacuum exhaust heating. XVIII. Miscella- 
neous heating. XIX. Radiator and pipe connections. XX. Ventilation. XXI, 
Mechanical ventilation and hot-blast heating. XXII. Steam appliances. XXIII. 
District heating. XXIV. Pipe and boiler covering. XXV. Temperature regulation 
and heat control. XXVI. Business methods. XXVII. Miscellaneous. XXVIII. 
Rules, tables, and useful information. 367 pages. 300 detailed engravings. Second 
Edition — Revised. Price $3.00 

500 PLAIN ANSWERS TO DIRECT QUESTIONS ON STEAM, HOT-WATER, 

VAPOR AND VACUUM HEATING PRACTICE. By Alfred G. King. 

This work, just off the press, is arranged in question and answer form : it is intended as 
a guide and text-book for the younger, inexperienced fitter and as a reference book for 
all fitters. This book tells "how" and also tells "why." No work of its kind has 
ever been published. It answers all the questions regarding each method or system 
that would be asked by the steam fitter or heating contractor, and may be used as a 
text' or reference book, and for examination questions by Trade Schools or Steam 
Fitters' Associations. Rules, data, tables and descriptive methods are given, to- 
gether with much other detailed information of daily practical use to those engaged in 
or interested in the various methods of heating. Valuable to those preparing for 
examinations. Answers every question asked relating to modern Steam, Hot-Water, 
Vapor and Vacuum Heating. Among the contents are: The Theory and Laws of 
Heat. Methods of Heating. Chimneys and Flues. Boilers for Heating. Boiler 
Trimmings and Settings. Radiation. Steam Heating. Boiler, Radiator and Pipe 
Connections for Steam Heating. Hot Water Heating. The Two-Pipe Gravity 
System of Hot Water Heating. The Circuit System of Hot Water Heating. The 
Overhead System of Hot Water Heating. Boiler, Radiator and Pipe Connections for 
Gravity Systems of Hot Water Heating. Accelerated Hot Water Heating. Ex- 
pansion Tank Connections. Domestic Hot Water Heating. Valves and Air Valves. 
Vacuum Vapor and Vacuo- Vapor Heating. Mechanical Systems of Vacuum Heating. 
Non-Mechanical Vacuum Systems. Vapor Systems. Atmospheric and Modulating 
Systems. Heating Greenhouses. Information, Rules and Tables. 200 pages, 127 
illustrations. Octavo. Cloth. Price $1.50 

STEEL 



STEEL: ITS SELECTION, ANNEALING, HARDENING, AND TEMPERING. 
By E. R. Mabkham. 

This work was formerly known as "The American Steel Worker," but on the pub- 
lication of the new, revised edition, the publishers deemed it advisable to change its 
title to a more suitable one. It is the standard work on Hardening, Tempering, 
and Annealing Steel of all kinds. 

This book tells how to select, and how to work, temper, harden, and anneal steel for 
everything on earth. It doesn't tell how to temper one class of tools and then leave 
the treatment of another kind of tool to your imagination and judgment, but it gives 
careful instructions for every detail of every tool, whether it be a tap, a reamer or just 
a screw-driver. It tells about the tempering of small watch springs, the hardening of 
cutlery, and the annealing of dies. In fact, there isn't a thing that a steel worker 
would want to know that isn't included. It is the standard book on selecting, harden- 
ing, and tempering all grades of steel. Among the chapter headings might be mentioned 
the following subjects: Introduction: the workman; steel: methods of heating; 
heating tool steel; forging: annealing: hardening baths: baths for hardening: harden- 
ing steel; drawing the temper after hardening; examples of hardening; pack harden- 
ing: case hardening: spring tempering; making tools of machine steel; special steels; 
steel for various tooLs: causes of trouble; high speed steels, etc. 400 pages. Very 
fully illustrated. Fourth Edition. Price $2.50 

2S 



CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS 

HARDENING, TEMPERING, ANNEALING, AND FORGING OF STEEL. By 
J. V. Wood worth. 

A new work treating in a clear, concise manner all modern processes for the heating, 
annealing, forging, welding, hardening, and tempering of steel, making it a book of 
great practical value to the metal-working mechanic in general, with special directions 
for the successful hardening and tempering of all steel tools used in the arts, including 
milling cutters, taps, thread dies, reamers, both solid and shell, hollow mills, punches 
and dies, and all kinds of sheet metal working tools, shear blades, saws, fine cutlery, and 
metal cutting tools of all description, as well as for all implements of steel both large 
and small. In this work the simplest and most satisfactory hardening and temper- 
ing processes are given. 

The uses to which the leading brands of steel may be adapted are concisely presented , 
and their treatment for working under different conditions explained, also the special 
methods for the hardening and tempering of special brands. 

A chapter devoted to the different processes for case-hardening is also included, and 
special reference made to the adaptation of machinery steel for tools of various kinds. 
Fourth Edition. 288 pages. 201 illustrations. Price $2.50 

TRACTORS 



THE MODERN GAS TRACTOR. By Victor W. Page. 

A complete treatise describing all types and sizes of gasoline, kerosene, and oil tractors. 
Considers design and construction exhaustively, gives complete instructions for care, 
operation and repair, outlines all practical applications on the road and in the field. 
The best and latest work on farm tractors and tractor power plants. A work needed 
by farmers, students, blacksmiths, mechanics, salesmen, implement dealers, designers, 
and engineers. 500 pages. Nearly 300 illustrations and folding plates. Price $2.00 

THE HOME-MADE TRACTOR. By Xeno W. Putnam. 

A practical treatise on the construction of small and special purpose tractors in the 
home workshop from the odds and ends of cast-off machinery available on nearly 
every farm. This work shows the farmer how, at small expense, to make his gasoline 
engine conveniently portable by making it self-moving. It guides him in the con- 
struction of a practical farm tractor that is capable of hauling, harvesting, plowing and 
doing all the ordinary farm work in which the propulsion of other machinery is re- 
quired. Twenty-four chapters are contained in this book and it is illustrated with 
over 153 working engravings showing many successfully built and tested home-made 
tractors. Bound in cloth, 12mo. 



29 



RECENTLY PUBLISHED 



MOOLttAWNO 



NTERGHANGW 



WORTH 



American Tool Making 

and 

Interchangeable 

Manufacturing. 

BY JOSEPH V. WOODWORTH, 
Author of "Dies, their Construction and Use," Etc, 

PRICE $4.00 

A practical treatise of 560 pages, containing 600 illustrations on the Design- 
ing, Constructing, Use and Installation of tools, jigs, fixtures, devices, 
special appliances, sheet metal working processes, automatic mechan- 
isms, and labor=saving contrivances ; together with their use in the 
lathe, milling machine, turret lathe, screw machine, boring mill, 
power press, drill, suppress, drop hammer, etc., for the 
working of metals, :he production of interchangeable 
machine parts and the manufacture of repetition 
articles of metal. 

TO the machinist, toolmaker. designer, foreman, diemaker, superintendent, manager and shop pro- 
prietor this book show: the 20th century manufacturing methods and assist in reducing the 
expense and increasing the output and the income. A book on the system of interchangeable 
manufacturing — the system that has won for the United States the industrial supremacy of the 'world is 
of value to all mechanics. 

The treatment of each tool described and illustrated is such as to enable any practical man to 
design, construct and use special tools, dies and fixtures for th2 rapid and accurate production of metal 
parts, interchangeably. To all interested in modem metal working this book will prove a mine of 
practical information, and a perusal of its pages will give them a higher knowledge of their art, teach 
them how to turn out finer and better work and help them to increase their earning capacity. 

SPECIAL CHAPTERS ON 

I. — Inception. Development and Installation of the Modern System of Interchangeable Manufacturing. 
II. — Machine Tools, Designing, Tool Making and Tool-rooms. IH. — Fundamental Principles, Processes, 
Practical Points for Jig Design and Construction. IV. — Types of Simple and Inexpensive Drilling Jigs 
their Construction and Use. V. — Intricate and Positive Drilling Jigs. VI. — The Design and Construction 
of Drilling Jigs for Heavy Machine Farts, e^c. VII — Drilling Jigs of Novel Design and Construe:: : r. 
VIEL — Use of Milling machines for Modern Tool Making, Daterchangeable Manufacturing and Jobbing 
Shop Work. IX. — Simple Milling Fixtures. X— Milling Fixtures for Accurate Work. XI. — Miscel- 
laneous Milling Fixtures and Special Tools for Similar Work. XH. — Special Tools, Fixtures and Devices 
for Machining Repetition Parts in the Turret lathe. XIII. — Special Tools, Fixtures and Devices for 
Machining Repetition Parts in the Screw Machine. XTV. — Construction and Use of Boring Fixtures and 
Similar Tools. XV. — Design, Manufacture and Use of Milling Cutters. XVI.— Hardening and Temper- 
ing of Milling Cutters. XVII. — Drills and Drilling, Forming Tools, Facing Tools, Counterbores. Boring 
Bars. Reamers and Reaming. XVIII. — Broaches arid Broaching. XIX. — Shop Use of Microme.tr 
Callipers and the Height Gauge. XX. — Mould Construction. XXI. — St>ecial Tools. Fixtures. Devices 
Arrangements and Novel Methods for Metal Working. XXII. — Special Tools, Fixtures. Devices. Ar- 
raneements and Novel Methods for Metal Working, continued. XXIH. — Special Machines for Acc^ra. e 
Work on Dies. XXIV.— Art of Sheet Metal V :r>:£g in Dies. XXV.— Making and Use of Punches and 
Dies for Sheet Metal Working. XXVI. — Making and Use of Punches and Dies for Sheet Metal Working. 
continued. XX T TI. — Processes. Presses. Devices and Arrangements for the Rapid and Economical 
Working of Sheet Metal. XXVHI.— Manufacture of Accurate Sheet Metal Paris in the Sub-Press. 
XXIX.— Engraving. Sinking, Constructing and Using Dies for Medals, Jewelry. Coins and Art Goods. 
XXX. — Modern Art of Swaging. Swaging Machines and the Cold Swaging Process. XXXI. — Methods 
and Process for Working Aluminum. XXXII. — Hints. Kinks, Ways and Methods of Use to Tool 
Makers and Die Makers. XXXIH. — Value of Up-to-date Fixtures and Machine Tools, 

WHAT IS SAID OF THIS BOOK : 

This book should be found in the library of every machinist and tool maker. — Scientific American. 
The book can heartily be recommended, not only to the practical metal worker, "but also to the 
engineer engaged in constructing appliances for that purpose. — Metal Industry. 



10 



JUST PUBLISHED-A NEW BOOK FROM COVER TO COVER 

Punches, Dies and Tools 



HQ *s n , V c 

h,\ PuNCHEb 

And j R ~ 

Too LS i [J I L o 



,O0DVV0 RTt 



FOR 

riANUFACTURINQ IN PRESSES 

By JOSEPH V. WOODWORTH 

Author of " Dies, Their Construction and Use," "American Tool 
Making and Interchangeable Manufacturing," and " Hard- 
ening, Tempering, Annealing and Forging of Steel." 

PRICE $4.00 



A practical work of 500 octavo pages fully illustrated by nearly 700 engrav- 
ings, being an encylopedia of Die Making, Punch Making, Die Sinking, Sheet 
Metal Working, and Making of Special Tools, Sub-Presses, Devices and Mechani- 
cal Combinations for Punching, Cutting, Bending, Forming, Piercing, Drawing, 
Compressing and Assembling Sheet Metal Parts and also Articles of other Materi- 
als in Machine Tools. 

HP HIS work also includes special chapters illustrating and explaining the Making of Cartridge Shells, 
Wire and Bar Steel Drawing Dies, Press Tools for Hydraulic Leather Packing, Paint and Chemical 
Tablets, Manufacture of Pens, Pins and Needles, Jewelry and Eye-Glass Die-making, Spoon and 
Fork-Making Dies, Use of Sub-presses, and Sub-press Die-Malting for Watch and Clock Work, 
and Accurate Piercing and Punching. Drop Dies and Drop Forging. Two Hundred and Ten Pro- 
cesses are clearly described and fully illustrated. This work being a companion and reference volume 
to the author's Elementary work entitled "Dies, Their Construction and Use for the Modern Working of 
Sheet Metals." Thirty-five separate and distinct trades and lines of industrial manufacturing are covered. 

This is an entirely new work on this subject, nothing appearing in this volume that has already 
been published in the author's previous work on " Dies, Their Construction and Use." 



Among the Chapters are the following: 

I Simple Bending and Forming Dies, Their Construction, Use and Operation. 

Intricate Combination, Bending and Forming Dies, for Accurate and Rapid Production. 
Automatic Forming, Bending and Twisting Dies and Punches, for Difficult and Novel Shaping. 
Cut, Carry and Follow Dies, Together with tool combinations for Progressive Sheet Metal Working. 
Notching, Perforating and Piercing Punches, Dies and Tools. 

Composite, Sectional, Compound and Armature Disk and Segment Punches and Dies. 
Processes and Tools for Making Rifle Cartridges, Cartridge Cases of Quick Firing Gtin8 t 

and Nickel Bullet Jackets. 
The Manufacture andUse of Dies for Drawing Wire and Bar Steel. 
Pens, Pins and Needles, Their Evolution and Manufacture. 
Punches, Dies and Processes for Making Hydraulic Packing Leathers, together with Tools for 

Paint and Chemical Tablets. 
Drawing, Re-Drawing, Reducing, Flanging, Forming, Reversing, and Cupping Processes, Punches 

and Dies, for Circular and Rectangular Sheet-Metal Articles. 
Beading, Wiring, Curling and Seaming Punches and Dies for Closing and Assembling of Metal Parts. 
Jewelry Die-Making, Eye-Glass, Lens and Medal Dies, and Construction of Spoon and Fork-Making 

Tools. 
Design, Construction and Use of Sub-presses and Sub-press Dies for Watch and Clock 

Work and Accurate Piercing and Punching. 
Drop Forging and Die Sinking, Together with Making of Drop Dies, Steam Hammer Dies, Number 

Plate Tools and Die» for Bolt Machines. 
Methods, Designs, Ways. Kinks, Formulas and Tools for Special Work, together with miscellaneous 

information of value of Tool and Die-Makers and Sheet-Metal Goods Manufacturers. 
XVII. Special and Novel Processes, Presses and Feeds for Working Sheet Metal in Dies. 



II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 



THE GREATEST BOOK EVER OFFERED TO THE PUBLIC! 




N EW REVISED EDITION 

Henley's Twentieth Century Book of 

RECIPES, FORMULAS 
AND PROCESSES 

Edited by GARDNER D. HISCOX, M. E. 



Price $3.00 Handsome Cloth Binding $4.00 Half Morocco Binding 

800 Large Octavo (6x9i) PAGES 

Contains over 10,000 Selected Processes, Formulas and Practical Recipes, 
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Bleaching Recipes — Etching and Engraving Recipes — Recipes for Glass Making— Paper 
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— Recipes for Adhesives — Recipes for Plating and Enameling — Cleaning Processes — Soap 
Making — leather and its Preparation — Recipes for Alloys — Recipes for Solders — Photographic 
Formulas — Shoe Dressing Recipes — Stove Blacking Recipes — Rust Preventive Recipes— Recipes 
for Lubricants — Recipes for Oils — Recipes for Dyes, Colors, and Pigments— Recipes for Dryers- 
Ink Recipes — Recipes for Artificial Gem Making— Jewelers' and Watchmakers' Recipes — House- 
hold Formulas— Waterproofing Recipes — Fireproofing Recipes— Recipes for Cements, Glues, 
Mucilages — Fireworks Recipes— Recipes for Eradicators— Alcohol and its Uses — Recipes for 
Essences and Extracts— Dentifrice Recipes— Cosmetic Recipes — Perfume Recipes — Tanning 
Recipes — Metalluigical Formulas — Hair Restorers — Depilatories. 

And many thousands more — Equally Important in the Arts and Manufacture* 

tJ&i^A special circular of this book will be sent on application. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



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